The biblical theme of the covenant appears to be a crucial motif in Reformed theology. It connects questions about identity and individual choices today to the grand narrative of the history of God’s revelation. Precisely this connection has always been vital to Reformed theology. A clear understanding of the biblical theme of covenant may likewise be expected to be vital in building bridges between God’s revelation in the past and the actual question of how to live with him today.
In spite of this, one may easily doubt whether it is really worthwhile to ask for the reader’s attention to the theme of covenant, in the present context. At first sight, considerations about actual developments in society seem to be more relevant for theologians to reflect on than the way God revealed himself in a history, to a people one might have difficulties connecting with. It is precisely these doubts that the editors of this volume would like to challenge.
This volume presents different perspectives on the covenant, which will be accounted for in this introduction. Still, there is a clear thread. The motif of the covenant highlights God’s faithfulness towards his people, which is actualized in each generation. The biblical theme of covenant is a dynamic concept, apt to be shaped in different ways in the times of the Old and New Testaments, renewing the fundamental relationship of God with his people in continually changing circumstances. The Reformed tradition has always sensed the importance and relevance of this theme, as it typically underlines God’s gracious allegiance towards people who do not merit being his partners. Nevertheless, this concept has not received equal attention in every phase of the Reformed tradition. After a period of relative silence since the seventies, the twentieth century saw a renewed interest in the topic, for several reasons to be explained. This volume underlines the idea that reflection on the covenant is not only interesting, but that it is a pivotal element in Reformed theology, as it is able to recalibrate Reformed theology. It asks how to connect individual and communal identity? How to tie God’s deeds in history to our lives today? How to give eschatology its legitimate place? How to do justice to the role of Israel in the history of salvation? How to take up the challenge of a living Israel today? How to stress God’s elective love, while at the same time taking human responsibility thoroughly seriously? And how to connect God’s unconditional love to the forensic language of scripture? These are some questions that are touched upon in this volume. A fresh investigation of the covenant will be vital to a fruitful approach seeking answers to these questions.
From the beginnings of the Reformed tradition, covenant had a central role in its theology. We find the roots of Reformed federal theology in the sixteenth century, in Zürich (Huldrych Zwingli, Leo Jud, Heinrich Bullinger), in Heidelberg (Zacharias Ursinus and Caspar Olevianus) and in Geneva (John Calvin).1 In the work of Puritans and Reformed scholastics, it developed further into a more full-grown form, known as Reformed federal theology. The basic structure of this theology is determined by three covenants: the eternal covenant of redemption between Father, Son, and Spirit to save the elect; the covenant of works made with humanity before the fall in sin; and the covenant of grace with Christ as its head and/or mediator. We find this structure both in Dutch Reformed theology and in the works of English Presbyterian and Puritan theologians. Segments of it can also be found in the Westminster Confession of Faith (1646), which distinguishes between the covenant of works and the covenant of grace in Chapter 7.2
The covenant-theme was rediscovered in the thirties of the twentieth century, both in and outside Reformed theology. Karl Barth used the covenant to emphasize God’s freedom in his election and grace. At the same time, he used the concept as a critical tool against natural bonds, which were stressed in National Socialism, although he did not agree with the system of Reformed federal theology, which, in his view, undermines a theology of grace. In the Netherlands, Klaas Schilder reemphasized the theme.3 He shared with Barth a critical attitude towards the scholasticism of those days, emphasizing the unity of the covenant. At the same time, he differed from Barth in defending the idea that God’s covenant with man was prelapsarian. In biblical studies, Walther Eichrodt, a colleague of Barth in Basel, made the concept
Some years later, George E. Mendenhall showed himself to be impressed by the parallels between Hittite and Israelite covenant-ideas (1955).5 His distinction of types of covenants, the royal grant-covenant and the suzerain-vassal-covenant, has been very influential. Together, these impulses led to many publications in biblical studies and systematic theology. In Presbyterian theology, different choices were made. John Murray argued that God’s grace was central in all covenants. As a result, he spoke of an Adamic administration instead of a covenant of works (1954).6 A different position was defended in The Treaty of the Great King by Meredith Kline (1963).7 This work supports the model of federal theology, using the distinction of the royal grant-covenant and the suzerain-vassal-covenant. According to Kline, the covenant with Moses is a conditional covenant and a republication of the covenant of works.
In Germany, however, two biblical scholars raised more critical voices. According to Lothar Perlitt (1969),
After a period of silence, however, a renewed interest can be seen today, due to important questions regarding the theme which must be addressed.
First, twenty-first century western Christians have their own ideas about individuals, communities, relationships, contracts (social and others), and covenants. These ideas are influenced by centuries of reading the scriptures, the tradition of modernity, and our present post-Christian context. Reformed ideas about the covenant have been developed parallel with the growth of modern culture (consider late medieval voluntarism, or early and later modern social imaginaries and individualisms). This raises the question of how today’s Christians interpret the term ‘covenant’ and to what extent this interpretation agrees with the meanings of
Second, from the late nineties onward, renewed study of treaties in the Ancient Near East, based on literary and archeological findings, reopened the issue of how the biblical concept of
Third, newer research in Reformed scholasticism by scholars like Willem J. van Asselt and Richard A. Muller showed another attitude towards Reformed federal theology than earlier research by neo-orthodox scholars who were stimulated by Karl Barth’s critical attitude towards federal theology.10 Is it true that elements of federal theology are inimical to God’s grace? Or can we understand federal theology as a contextual form of theology serving the gospel of God’s grace? How should we evaluate the idea of a ‘covenant of works’? And what does all this imply for a contemporary doctrine of the covenant(s)?
Fourth, several studies on biblical theology and systematical theology were published in which covenant reappeared as an important theological theme, such as those of Van de Beek (2002 and 2008), Michael Horton (2006), Paul R. Williamson (2007), Scott W. Hahn (2009), and Peter J. Gentry and Stephen J. Wellum (2012).11 During the process of editing, an important study on the topic of the covenant was published by Waters, Reid and Muether (2020).12 (Some authors of the present volume had the opportunity to reflect on it. However, it was too late to ask all authors to refer to this book.) To these publications could be added those of N.T. Wright, who assigns an important role to God’s covenant with Abraham, or, in the Netherlands, the work of Henk de Jong.13 These authors show that the covenant-theme can still play a prominent part in a vital biblical theology and is too important to be neglected. Many of these publications start with the variety of covenants in scripture, like the covenants made with Adam, Noah, Abraham, Israel, and David, and the new covenant. This evokes the question as to how this variety of covenants relates to the model of federal theology with its three covenants or the Reformed emphasis on the unity of the covenant of grace.
Finally, within North America, controversy arose due to what has come to be known as the ‘Federal Vision’ or ‘Auburn Avenue Theology.’ Federal Vision refers to a group of theologians who share a high view of the sacraments and of the church. The Federal Vision started at a conference in 2002 and was rejected by various American Reformed and Presbyterian denominations. Adherents of the Federal Vision emphasize the unity, the gracious nature, and the conditionality of the covenant before and after humanity’s fall into sin. Furthermore, the group shares a high view of the church and of the sacraments. In this volume, the Federal Vision itself will not be evaluated, although questions of the conditionality of the covenant and the relationship between divine election and human responsibility will be discussed. Still, this movement indicates the ongoing importance of the covenant-theme.14
To conclude, there are enough reasons today to reconsider the theme of the covenant, from the perspectives of linguistic studies, of Ancient Near East sources, of historical research of federal theology, and of recent biblical theological publications.
1 Reformed Theology
This volume will address many of these important questions on the covenant(s) from biblical, historical and systematical perspectives. It presents the fruits of a conference organized by the research group Biblical Exegesis and Systematic Theology (BEST) in Apeldoorn, the Netherlands, in 2017.
The members of this research group stand in the Dutch, Reformed tradition. Although the conference received international attention, most contributions to this volume share the same Reformed theological tradition, in which covenant always has been an important theme. Partly, they stem from the experiential (bevindelijke) tradition with roots in the ‘Nadere Reformatie’, the Dutch wing of Puritanism, while other contributors have a background in Neo-Calvinism. All share a high view of scripture and intend to give it a primary role in theology.
This does not imply, however, that the reader cannot expect diversity in this volume. Whereas the Lutheran tradition is clearly defined by the Augsburg Confession, the Reformed tradition has never reached a similar stage of confessional uniformity, but has always given evidence of variety and breadth.15 For this reason, it should not surprise one that it has always been difficult to present a precise definition of the ‘Reformed identity.’16
A significant difference regarding the covenant-theme in the Reformed tradition is that the covenant-theme is less prominent in the Dutch ‘Forms of Unity’ – the Belgic Confession (1561), the Heidelberg Catechism (1563), and the Canons of Dordt (1619) – than it is in the Westminster Confession (1646). The Forms of Unity mention the covenant more than once, but do so in two contexts in particular: the relationship between the old and the new covenant and the sacraments. Unlike the Forms of Unity, the Westminster confession makes explicit use of the concepts of the so-called federal theology in its more developed form, employing the distinction of the covenant of works and the covenant of grace as a structuring principle.17 Accordingly, federal theology has confessional status in the Presbyterian tradition, whereas is does not have such a status in the Reformed tradition, which marks an important point of difference. Still, covenant has been an important theme in the Dutch Reformed tradition, as the works of, among others, Klaas Schilder and J.G. Woelderlink make clear.18 Accordingly, it will not surprise anyone that the covenant theme receives ongoing attention.
2 Biblical Exegesis, Historical Theology, and Systematic Theology
Often, biblical scholars, church historians and systematic theologians organize their own conferences and read their own literature, operating in separate compartments. This is a regrettable situation, for good theology should bring together these perspectives and combine them in a creative way. Especially within Reformed theology, scripture and doctrine ought to be closely related.19 Within the research group BEST, working within that Reformed tradition, biblical scholars and systematic theologians cooperate closely to bring their respective approaches into fruitful dialogue. If biblical scholars want to do their work in a really theological manner, systematic theologians can help them to see the theological questions and problems. If systematic theology wants to justify its theological statements referring to scripture without doing this in a simplified and ahistorical way, it needs the aid of biblical studies. Moreover, the history of theology is important, as it shows how the scriptures were read throughout history, thus bridging the chronological distance between scripture and contemporary reflection.
In the case of a theme like the covenant(s), it will be clear that biblical studies, historical research and systematic reflection can all make an important contribution to theological reflections. The combination of these disciplines might be difficult, because of, for example, terminological problems, as the Hebrew
As a witness to such fruitful cooperation, this volume investigates the various covenants in the Old and New Testaments, historical positions on the covenant in Jewish tradition, in the Reformation, and Reformed federal theology as well as actual systematic issues about the relevance of the covenant. Only the coordination of these different perspectives will further the theological debate.
3 A Covenant-Concept?
As already indicated, semantic sensitivity is necessary, for different words from different languages with different connotations are used in different contexts with different communicative intentions:
In Reformed theological discourse, the term covenant is mainly used in connection with God’s relationship with his people, with humanity or with creation. More specifically, it often refers to a formal regulation that shapes or directs the relationship. However, theologians do not always use the term in exactly the same sense. Besides, as has been pointed out above, the sense they attribute to the term may differ from the way in which Hebrew
The contributors to this volume are not using a uniform definition of covenant. Nevertheless, all authors are consistent in their own use of the term and present their particular definition when necessary. Moreover, they show awareness of the variety in the biblical and theological uses of the term. This is important in order to stimulate a real exchange of ideas between exegesis and systematic theology, in order to contribute to the construction of a covenant theology that takes advantage of the various approaches and results of both disciplines. This cooperation of two disciplines is mandatory for new exegetical insights to be appropriated and for new reconstructions of a systematic-theological doctrine of the covenant to be founded in scripture.
The biblical covenants give insight into the ongoing relationship of God with his people. Focusing on this reality, the present volume contributes to the ongoing debate about the following questions, connecting biblical and systematic theology on the theme of covenant:
How can biblical theological reflections on the covenants provide a fruitful framework for systematic theologians which can help them to express the reality of God’s covenantal relationship with his people in accordance with scripture?
How can systematic theology offer questions and challenges for biblical theologians which can help them in studying the unity and the diversity of God’s revelation as to the mutual relationship between him and his people?
4 Overview of This Volume
This volume combines three different perspectives on covenants – biblical, historical, and systematic-theological –, which also determines its structure. Accordingly, its first three parts are: 1. Biblical Perspectives; 2. Historical Perspectives; 3. Systematic-Theological Perspectives. The volume concludes with Part 4. Concluding Reflections. This part consists of one essay in which a scholar critically reflects on the previous contributions. It has been written after the conference at which the original papers were read and discussed.
4.1 Part 1: Biblical Perspectives
The first part, Biblical Perspectives, opens with two contributions of a more general nature, concentrating on the Hebrew term
Next, Koert van Bekkum discusses the ancient Near-Eastern parallels to texts about covenants and covenant-making in the Old Testament: what is characteristic of these parallels and how can biblical scholars and theologians use them in a responsible way? Van Bekkum gives an overview of the history of research into the parallels and the impact of this research on the theological understanding of covenant. He highlights the remarkable fact that the impact was limited to the first phase of this research, which ended in 1990. He further comments on the methodology to be adopted by biblical scholars and others when making use of the parallels. They should first read all texts in their own contexts, interpret them in agreement with their individual characteristics, and refrain from quickly drawing conclusions. Van Bekkum concludes with two theological considerations. First, the way in which biblical texts refer to covenants and covenant-making testifies to the fact that divine revelation made use of genres already in use in its ancient Near-Eastern context and made them subservient to its aim. Second, an appeal to an extra-biblical parallel does not suffice to classify biblical covenants as, for example, either conditional or unconditional.
The other contributions in Part 1 concentrate on a particular covenant and/or a particular passage in scripture.
Arie Versluis investigates the covenant that Moses made in Moab, according to Deuteronomy 26: 16–19; 29. He demonstrates that the covenant is made through the speech acts recorded in these passages. The reference to “today” as the moment of covenant-making refers to an ongoing present: the covenant must always be entered afresh. As for the relation to other covenants, Versluis concludes that the Moab covenant does not replace the Horeb covenant. Instead, it renews, confirms and explains this foundational covenant for the present and future generations. The covenant with the patriarchs, for its part, is foundational to the Horeb covenant and to YHWH’s relation with Israel in general. Although Deut. 30: 6 announces the inner change of Israel in the far future, the Moab covenant cannot be considered a prefiguration of the new covenant. As regards one of the focal points of this volume, Versluis’s analysis may put the common distinction between the one covenant and the numerous covenants in which it manifests itself into perspective. The covenant involves a dynamic relationship which constantly places humans before God in a continuing present.
In Jaap Dekker’s contribution on the new covenant in Isaiah, still another covenant comes to the fore: God’s covenant with David. Dekker takes issue with von Rad’s view that in Isaiah 55: 3, the covenant with David is democratized into a covenant with the people, because this interpretation does not square with the phrase about the steadfast mercies for David in verse 3b. For his own interpretation, Dekker makes critical use of Henk de Jong’s view of the covenant with David as a covenant intending to reinforce the covenant made at Sinai. He argues that it is typical of Isaiah 55 that the everlasting covenant with David likewise provides a solid basis for the new covenant, in which Israel will be made a witness to the nations. Thus, Dekker makes an important contribution to a more comprehensive and dynamic understanding of the relationship between several covenants figuring in the Old Testament.
Mart-Jan Paul focuses on the prophecy of a new covenant in Jeremiah 31: 31–34 and its meaning in its own literary context. The new covenant will be made with the people of Israel and Judah and not with other nations. Furthermore, the emphasis is on the people as a whole, not on individuals. In both respects, the affirmations made in the text differ from what is often assumed in Christian systematic theology. Through the new covenant, God will continue his relationship with Israel by resolving the problem resulting from the people’s disobedience. By changing the hearts of the Israelites, God will create the conditions for the fulfillment of the promises confirmed by earlier covenants, including their material aspects such as possession of the land. Although this will serve his ultimate goal of bringing blessing to all peoples, members of other nations will not share all elements of the promises sealed by the new covenant according to Jeremiah 31.
The place of Israel within the covenant is thematized in the contribution of Arco den Heijer. He pays particular attention to the speech of Peter in Acts 3: 12–26, analyzing through this lens the use of
Donald Cobb demonstrates that although the term covenant does not occur very often in the New Testament, the concept to which it refers is pivotal to understanding how salvation is offered to Jews and Gentiles. Against the view of some adherents of the ‘New Perspective on Paul,’ Cobb states that the apostle does not propagate an alternative way of living with God for the Gentiles (i.e. by participating in Christ, as some would suggest). He emphasizes the continuity of God’s covenant in the Old and New Testaments. Focusing on Paul’s argumentation in Galatians 4: 21–31, he shows that the ‘allegory’ found in these verses agrees with the prophecy of Isaiah 54, where Israel is promised a new posterity as a further fulfillment of God’s promises to Sarah. The use of the term covenant thus reveals a deeper connection within God’s work in the Old and the New Testaments than is generally assumed from the passage.
Michael Mulder focuses on Romans 10. Although the term covenant is not mentioned there, Paul, in Romans 9–11, underscores God’s faithfulness to his promises to Israel, while he also ponders Israel’s responsibility, thus reflecting basic elements of God’s covenant with his people. Mulder’s contribution analyzes the way Paul uses scripture in Romans 10 in order to come to terms with these different elements. He notes an intertextual connection with the language of Isaiah 40–55, thus showing how God’s electing activity overarches and incorporates human responsibility, while, at the same time, he fully addresses this responsibility in his covenant dealings with Israel. In a concluding remark the article emphasizes the relevance of these exegetical observations for systematic-theological reflections on the covenant, showing that the way Paul addressed his questions about God’s covenantal relationship with Israel – that is, by listening to the scriptures – is pivotal for the understanding of God’s covenant in the present time.
4.2 Part 2: Historical Perspectives
The second part of the volume, Historical Perspectives¸ opens with two essays on Jewish history. The first is written by Eveline van Staalduine-Sulman, who analyzes the way in which the covenant functions in the Mekhilta-de-Rabbi Ishmael, comparing it with other midrashim and with the New Testament. Although the term covenant does not play a major role in rabbinic writings, the rabbis reflect on the particular relationship between God and Israel. Central to their thought is the importance of the Torah given to Israel. It seems as if the Mekhilta emphasizes that the Torah came to Israel because the nations refused it. That would be the opposite movement which is noted by Paul, that the Gospel came to the Gentiles, because of Israel’s refusal to accept it. Still this opposition is not an absolute one, as the rabbis always kept a theologically motivated positive attitude towards the nations. After the destruction of the Temple, Judaism had to find a new identity, fighting against a severe Roman occupation and against an increasingly hostile Christianity. Thus, the historical situation plays a significant role in the aloofness of the Mekhilta to connect the term covenant with the nations. This should be taken into account in studying the rabbinic use of this term as a background for a New Testament study of the word ‘covenant’, although the main elements of the concept are comparably present in both traditions.
Aaron Chun Fai Wan presents the way in which one specific text about the covenant, the prophecy of the new covenant in Jeremiah 31, is interpreted in differing Jewish sources. In the Targum and in rabbinic midrashim this new covenant is perceived as eschatological, to be realized in the future, when God will renew his covenantal bond with Israel. Wan draws attention to the element of continuity, as well as the remaining focus on the people of Israel. A better understanding of the interpretation of Jeremiah 31 in Jewish tradition will facilitate Jewish-Christian dialogue on these issues, preventing a one-sided approach to the new covenant from a purely Christian perspective in which the discontinuity has always been stressed.
The other historical contributions relate to the history of the Reformed tradition.
Daniël Timmerman discusses the development of systematic reflection on the covenant in early Reformed theology. As point of departure he scrutinizes several catechisms issued at Zurich, important because of the influence of Bullinger and Zwingli who worked in this city. It appears that the notion of covenant was present already in the earliest catechisms. In particular Leo Jud pioneered the field of federal theology. Other Reformed theologians, such as Zacharias Ursinus and Robert Rollock, as well as the Westminster catechisms, elaborated the doctrine in terms of a twofold treaty of God with men, characterized respectively by works and by grace. Although the unfolding of such a double covenant scheme was a real signpost, Timmerman demonstrates that the basic questions that were addressed by this doctrine were present from the very beginning of the Reformed covenant tradition, thus emphasizing the continuity within these developments.
After this overview, the next historical articles focus on specific theologians from the Reformed tradition.
The Swiss church reformer Heinrich Bullinger occupies center stage in Pierrick Hildebrand’s essay. In the twentieth century, theologians like Karl Barth and John Murray have used Bullinger’s theology as an ally in their own criticism of the covenant of works as opposed to the covenant of grace. Based on an analysis concentrating on Bullinger’s comments on the imago Dei, the law and the tree of life in sermons on Genesis 1–3, Hildebrand compares his view on the relationship between God and man before the Fall with the later Reformed concept of the covenant of works. He argues that although Bullinger does not use the term ‘covenant of works,’ there is much similarity and continuity between his thoughts about a prelapsarian relationship between God and man and the later concept. This puts Barth’s and Murray’s appeal to Bullinger in support of their critical view on the concept into proper perspective.
Matthias Mangold describes the doctrine of the covenant of works of the Reformed theologian Johannes Braun (1628–1708), who attempted to organize all dogmatic loci around the theme of the covenant. Like Hildebrand, Mangold does so against the background of the later criticism of the covenant of works, in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. He demonstrates that the original view of the covenant of works such as advocated by Braun is more nuanced and complex than its critics often assume. Thus, he makes it impossible to simply reject this part of the Reformed theological tradition. In the wake of Braun, he also provides some comments on the use of non-biblical terms in systematic theology, which relates to one of the main issues in this volume.
Willem van Vlastuin discusses the covenant-theology of the Dutch Reformed theologian Wilhelmus à Brakel (1635–1711), who, similarly to Braun, took the covenant of grace as the leitmotif for structuring his magnum opus The Christian’s Reasonable Service. For À Brakel’s ecclesiology, this means that the spiritual communion or marriage with Christ is at its heart. However, as part of his opposition to Labadist individualism, À Brakel understood not only the acceptance of the covenant as its essence, but also the public church. Thus, one is left with a tension between the inner affective dimension of the Christian life and the public dimension, as well as between collective and individual participation in the covenant.
4.3 Part 3: Systematic-Theological Perspectives
In the first contribution of Part 3 (Systematic-Theological Perspectives), Arnold Huijgen explicitly faces the challenge of connecting exegesis and systematic theology. He elaborates three different contributions to covenant theology from biblical perspectives, namely by the Reformed Michael S. Horton, the Roman-Catholic Scott W. Hahn, and the Anglican N.T. Wright. He uses these authors to address some specific weaknesses in Reformed covenant theology, namely a lack of awareness of the relevance of history, of eschatology, and of the presence and place of Israel. Huijgen uses his treatment of these authors to recalibrate Reformed theology. His contribution counters earlier criticisms of Reformed covenant theology by biblical resourcing, focusing on a thoroughly trinitarian approach. This trinitarian theology should be understood in economic terms, in order to keep the doctrine of the Trinity and the doctrine of the covenant closely together, whereas the doctrine of the covenant should be developed with a focus on history. Huijgen thus states that as trinitarian theology, covenant theology stays close to the authoritative biblical history, is eschatological in nature, and in ongoing solidarity and unity with Israel.
Hans Burger picks up the thread of the covenant of works once again. He first describes the historical background of the theologoumenon in pre-Reformation theology and its theological function. Next, he expounds the problems that call for a critical review of the concept: the indispensability of the law for God’s relationship with man, the apparent meritorious nature of obedience, the discrepancy with biblical terminology, and the underestimation of the role of Israel. Burger concludes his contribution with a thought-experiment regarding a theology without a covenant of works, which takes its point of departure from love rather than from legal notions. In his view, such a theology can circumvent the problems arising from the covenant of works and at the same time fulfill its theological functions. Further research is needed as to the exegetical warrant of such a theology.
Dolf te Velde zooms in on the conditions to be fulfilled by those partaking in the covenant of grace. Faith is commonly presented as the condition, but how can this be reconciled with the unconditional nature of grace and the Reformed doctrine of predestination? Following, among others, the Dutch Reformed theologian Klaas Schilder, Te Velde argues that this is possible if one defines faith as a condition that accompanies God’s graciously working out of salvation, not as the ground for being in the covenant. Faith merely receives the promise of grace and it is itself a free gift of God. A corollary of this view is that Christ is the mediator of the covenant of grace, not its head. On this point, Te Velde cautiously takes issue with the Westminster Confession, whose doctrine of the covenant of grace could be supplemented by an emphasis on the appropriation of the promise of salvation by the Holy Spirit.
The final contribution in Part 3 builds a bridge to practice. Bram de Muynck offers a framework for practical theological research concerning the interaction between conceptions about covenant and educational practice. One of the issues that is always discussed in Dutch Reformed theology is whether ‘being baptized’ is equivalent to ‘being in the covenant.’ De Muynck mentions two positions: one in which covenant is seen as an ‘unconditional’ category (baptized people are by definition in the covenant), opposed to a ‘conditional’ view of the covenant, in which covenant follows election (believers are in the covenant after they have received experiential assurance of their election). The question is what impact these positions have on the spirituality of church members and on educational practices. Yet, there is little empirical information to answer that question. De Muynck’s contribution is meant as a starting point for further research in this field, which appears to be relevant for pastors who guide parents, youth leaders, and others in educational practices.
4.4 Part 4: Concluding Reflections
We kindly thank Georg Plasger for writing the last contribution to the present volume. In his concluding reflections he evaluates each contribution to the discussion on the covenant. He considers the relevance of the dialogue between the different disciplines, and concludes that the results of these studies reveal that “the doctrine of the covenant has unemployed potential.”
We present these essays to stimulate the ongoing discussion of the central theme of the covenant, motivated by the interaction between the three differing perspectives, which, in our view, is a key point of our collaboration within the research group Biblical Exegesis and Systematic Theology of the Theological Universities of Kampen and Apeldoorn. We trust that the present volume shows such interaction to be fruitful to understanding the biblical concept of covenant as a vital element of Reformed theology.
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Ryrie, Alec. Protestants: The Faith That Made the Modern World. New York: Viking, 2017.
Strauss, S.A. Alles of niks: K. Schilder oor die verbond [All or nothing: K. Schilder about the covenant]. Bloemfontein: Patmos, 1986.
Waters, Guy Prentiss, J. Nicholas Reid, and John R. Muether, eds. Covenant Theology: Biblical, Theological, Historical Perspectives. Wheaton: Crossway, 2020.
Williamson, Paul R. Sealed with an Oath: Covenant in God’s Unfolding Purpose. NSBT 23. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2007.
Willis-Watkins, David, Michael Welker, and Matthias Gockel. Toward the Future of Reformed Theology: Tasks, Topics, Traditions. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999.
Wilschut, H.J.C.C.J. J.G. Woelderink: Om de ‘vaste grond des geloofs’; De ontwikkeling in zijn theologisch denken, met name ten aanzien van verbond en verkiezing [J.G. Woelderink: For the “firm foundation of faith”; The development in his theological thinking, especially regarding covenant and election]. Heerenveen: Groen, 2000.
Woolsey, Andrew A. Unity and Continuity, in Covenantal Thought: A Study in the Reformed Tradition to the Westminster Assembly. Grand Rapids: Reformation Heritage, 2012.
Wright, N.T. The Climax of the Covenant: Christ and the Law in Pauline Theology. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1992.
On the history of the doctrine of the covenant, see e.g. Andrew A. Woolsey, Unity and Continuity, in Covenantal Thought: A Study in the Reformed Tradition to the Westminster Assembly (Grand Rapids: Reformation Heritage, 2012). For more literature, see J. Mark Beach, Christ and the Covenant: Francis Turretin’s Federal Theology as a Defense of the Doctrine of Grace (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2007), 19–64; Aaron C. Denlinger, Omnes in Adam Ex Pacto Dei: Ambrogio Catarino’s Doctrine of Covenantal Solidarity and Its Influence on Post-Reformation Reformed Theologians (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2010), 36–64.
Continental Reformed confessions such as the Belgic Confession and Heidelberg Catechism, which were written in an earlier phase of the development of Reformed covenant-doctrine, are less explicit on these matters.
See e.g. S.A. Strauss, Alles of niks: K. Schilder oor die verbond [All or nothing: K. Schilder about the covenant] (Bloemfontein: Patmos, 1986).
Walther Eichrodt, Theologie des Alten Testaments, 3 vols. (Leipzig: Hinrichs, 1939).
George E. Mendenhall, Law and Covenant in Israel and the Ancient near East (Pittsburgh: Biblical Colloquium, 1955).
John Murray, The Covenant of Grace (London: Tyndale, 1954).
Meredith G. Kline, Treaty of the Great King (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1963).
Lothar Perlitt, Bundestheologie im Alten Testament (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1969); Ernst Kutsch, Verheissung und Gesetz: Untersuchungen zum sogenannten “Bund” im Alten Testament, BZAW 131 (Berlin: De Gruyter, 1973).
William J. Dumbrell, Covenant and Creation: A Theology of the Old Testament Covenants (Carlisle: Paternoster, 2000, first published 1984); Thomas E. McComiskey, The Covenants of Promise. A Theology of the Old Testament Covenants (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1985).
See e.g. Willem J. van Asselt, The Federal Theology of Johannes Cocceius (1603–1669) (Leiden: Brill, 2001); Richard Muller, “The Covenant of Works and the Stability of Divine Law in Seventeenth-Century Reformed Orthodoxy: A Study in the Theology of Herman Witsius and Wilhelmus À Brakel,” in After Calvin: Studies in the Development of a Theological Tradition, ed. Richard A. Muller (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 175–90. For an overview of developments in the research of federal theology, see Beach, Christ and the Covenant, 19–64.
A. van de Beek, De kring om de Messias: Israël als volk van de lijdende Heer [The circle around the Messiah: Israel as people of the suffering Lord] (Zoetermeer: Meinema, 2002), esp. 168–93, 206; A. van de Beek, God doet recht: Eschatologie als christologie [God does justice: Eschatology as Christology] (Zoetermeer: Meinema, 2008), 168–221, 332–43; Michael Scott Horton, God of Promise: Introducing Covenant Theology (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2006); Paul R. Williamson, Sealed with an Oath: Covenant in God’s Unfolding Purpose, NSBT 23 (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2007); Scott W. Hahn, Kinship by Covenant: A Canonical Approach to the Fulfillment of God’s Saving Promises, AYBRL (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009); Peter J. Gentry and Stephen J. Wellum, Kingdom Through Covenant: A Biblical-Theological Understanding of the Covenants (Wheaton: Crossway, 2012).
Guy Prentiss Waters, J. Nicholas Reid, and John R. Muether, eds., Covenant Theology: Biblical, Theological, Historical Perspectives (Wheaton: Crossway, 2020). All contributors are related to Reformed Theological Seminary in the United States, belonging to the Presbyterian tradition of Westminster Standards.
See e.g. N.T. Wright, The Climax of the Covenant: Christ and the Law in Pauline Theology (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1992); H. de Jong, Van oud naar nieuw: de ontwikkelingsgang van het Oude naar het Nieuwe Testament [From old to new: The development from the Old to the New Testament] (Kampen: Kok, 2002).
For a first overview of the Federal Vision and its critics, see Andrew T.B. McGowan, Adam, Christ and Covenant (Nottingham: Inter Varsity, 2016), 79–107.
Chris Caughey and Crawford Gribben, “History, Identity Politics, and the ‘Recovery of the Reformed Confession,’ ” in On Being Reformed: Debates over a Theological Identity, by Matthew C. Bingham et al. (Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018), 4–11; Alec Ryrie, Protestants: The Faith That Made the Modern World (New York: Viking, 2017), 61–83.
See e.g. the diversity in David Willis-Watkins, Michael Welker, and Matthias Gockel, Toward the Future of Reformed Theology: Tasks, Topics, Traditions (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999); Wallace M. Alston and Michael Welker, Reformed Theology: Identity and Ecumenicity (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003).
Michael Allen, “Confessions,” in The Cambridge Companion to Reformed Theology, ed. Paul T. Nimmo and David Fergusson, Cambridge Companions to Religion (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2016), 36. On the covenants in Reformed theology, see also Michael Allen, Reformed Theology, Doing Theology (London: T&T Clark, 2010), 34–53.
Strauss, Alles of niks; H.J.C.C.J. Wilschut, J.G. Woelderink: Om de ‘vaste grond des geloofs’; de ontwikkeling in zijn theologisch denken, met name ten aanzien van verbond en verkiezing [J.G. Woelderink: For the “firm foundation of faith”; The development in his theological thinking, especially regarding covenant and election] (Heerenveen, Groen, 2000).
Cf. another BEST-volume, viz. Hans Burger, Arnold Huijgen, and Eric Peels, eds., Sola Scriptura: Biblical and Theological Perspectives on Scripture, Authority, and Hermeneutics, SRTh 32 (Leiden: Brill, 2017).