1 Introduction
Ancient Egyptian inscriptions are complex objects. They consist in words in a particular arrangement, a “verbal text.” But they are also physically dimensional and localized artifacts inscribed in stone, making an “inscriptional text.” A schematic outline of relevant dimensions is the following:
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“The verbal text” (the text as an arrangement of words):
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the words, strung together by grammar
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phraseology and more specific intertextual relations with other inscriptions
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structure, poetic form
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“The inscriptional text” (the text as a physically dimensional and localized artifact):
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positioning and visibility in built or natural space
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materiality (material, epigraphy, etc.)
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relation to images (when given)
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inscriptional layout
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Print publications often focus on the verbal text, and particularly on the first and second dimensions above. All the other dimensions can be described verbally as well, and print publications remain the natural medium for analysis and interpretation. Digital textual corpuses present the wording of the verbal text, which can be enriched by translations, grammatical annotations, and philological notes. They permit navigating between texts within a corpus or, ideally, across linked corpuses, and thereby provide an implicit representation of phraseology and intertext, through lexical tagging or, additionally, through a controlled lexicon of motifs. Discussed by others at the conference from which the present volume derives, 3D technology permits visualizations of inscriptions as localized material artifacts in context. The present paper addresses two other dimensions for which a digital presentation offers added value: poetic structure and inscriptional layout.
The first is a dimension of the “verbal text” as defined above, the second a dimension of the “inscriptional text.” For both these dimensions, I illustrate the value of a digital presentation with two examples from the Old Kingdom.1 One is Hezi’s short, but complex, autobiography (Saqqara, reign of Teti), inscribed in five columns on the right thickness of the doorway leading into the official’s funerary chapel. The other is the extensively inscribed façade of Harkhuf’s funerary chapel at Qubbet el-Hawa (early reign of Pepi II), a monument that inaugurated the hieroglyphic inscription of that place on a massive scale. My discussion is entirely prospective, reflecting on how the digital tools that I am evoking would be of interest.
2 Representing the Poetic Structure of Inscriptions
In a simple representation, the text of Hezi’s event autobiography can be displayed in a way that reflects its segmentation in clauses, thereby easing the reading of what the words stand for (Figure 19.1). This representation of the verbal text, often favored in text editions and in digital corpuses similarly, is close to being flat, as the only level of structure made visible here is clausal structure. Going further, a general representation of the poetic structure of the text could be suggested through empty lines and indents (Figure 19.2). Based on this, a dynamic navigation could permit a visualization of the various levels of structure involved.
A basic level in Hezi’s inscription is that all things come in pairs (Figure 19.2a): twice, “I was a (jnk) … during the time of (n rk …)”; then, “It was Teti, my lord (jn ttj nb(.j)), who … me (w(j)) …” and “His Person had (rḏ.n ḥm=f) … for me (n(.j)) …”; then twice again, “I have acted as (jr.n(.j)) … with His Person (ḫr ḥm=f) at the head of (m-ḥꜢt) …”; and, finally, “His Person used to have me (wn rḏ ḥm=f) … as if (mr m) … even though I was only a (sk w(j) m) …” and “His Person used to consult (wn ḥm=f nḏ=f) … in the manner (done) among (m rꜢ-Ꜥ mm) … even though I was only a (sk w(j) m) …” This structure in pairs is not just formal, but expressive of the tight relationship between Hezi and the king: in the first and third pairs, the speaker, Hezi, acts for kings, twice; in the second and fourth pairs, reciprocally, the king acts for the speaker.
Beyond this structure in alternating pairs, Hezi’s autobiography presents palindromic elements. The clauses “… for His Person knew my name (n rḫ ḥm=f rn(.j)) …” and “… without there being any (ny wnt … nb …) …” occur in the first part of the text, then again in the final part of the text, in reverse order (Figure 19.2b). By a similar token, a sequence of three titles is found in the first part of the text, then again in the final part of text, in reverse order (Figure 19.2c). Together, these two palindromes define a form that concentrically focuses the central element, where Hezi states, in lapidary simplicity: “I have acted as a scribe with His Person at the front of scribes (jr.n(.j) zš ḫr ḥm=f m-ḥꜢt zšw); I have acted as an official with His Person at the front of officials (jr.n(.j) sr ḫr ḥm=f m-ḥꜢt srw)” (Figure 19. 2d).
In a print publication, a figure could be constructed to provide a synthetic representation of these elements in addition to their discussion in the verbal commentary (Figure 19.3). Such a representation, however, is bound to remain static and much condensed. A digital environment would permit the unpacking of the various elements of structure just discussed, allowing the viewer to navigate between these. A similar dynamic visualization could easily be applied to a translation of the text and to photographs (not given here), allowing the user to switch back and forth between all of these.
Figure 19.2a
Hezi, dynamic representation of various levels of form - 1
Figure 19.2b
Hezi, dynamic representation of various levels of form - 2
Figure 19.2c
Hezi, dynamic representation of various levels of form - 3
Figure 19.2d
Hezi, dynamic representation of various levels of form - 4
Another example may illustrate the same proposal. Inscribed in three columns on the right of the doorway leading into Harkhuf’s funerary chapel, a titulary of the official is expanded into a short poetic form. A flat representation, be it in transcription or in translation, would provide a continuous, one-dimensional, string of titles and epithets. A representation with slightly more structure would group the titles and epithets based on their nature and contents. Going further, a representation could show visually how the titulary falls in two parts, each fourfold, and how the second part is an expansion, or elaboration, of the first (Figure 19.4a). The result is a short poetic form in which a number of key terms are repeated three times (Figure 19.4b; note that “produce” and “bring” are based on the same root, jnj, in Egyptian), giving the expanded titulary a celebratory dimension while defining an immediate biographical identity of Harkhuf.
Figure 19.3
Hezi, attempt at a synthetic visualization of structure in a print publication
The event autobiography that follows the titulary is generally read for its historical contents, as a continuous narrative text, and represented accordingly as a linear sequence of words. Going beyond this flat representation, empty lines and indents can be used to provide a hierarchical representation of recurrent structural elements, for example the recurrent tripartite generative scheme [king’s command—Harkhuf’s action—king’s praise or statement of exceptionality] on which each of the three journeys by Harkhuf is based, as well as extensive parallelism throughout the text. Going further yet, a digital environment would make it possible to visualize how each of the three modules (corresponding to Harkhuf’s three journeys) is an expansion of the preceding one (Figure 19.5a–b). In the first journey, the king sends Harkhuf out with his father (a) to open a road to Iam (b). Acting in response, Harkhuf accomplishes the trip in seven months (c) and brings back rare produce (d); he is praised by the king (e).
Figure 19.4a
Harkhuf, titulary, dynamic representation of one level of form
Figure 19.4b
Harkhuf, titulary, dynamic representation of another level of form
Figure 19.5a
Harkhuf, beginning of event autobiography, representation of one level of form, in transliteration
Figure 19.5b
Harkhuf, beginning of event autobiography, representation of one level of form, in translation
In the second module, corresponding to Harkhuf’s second journey, the king’s initiating command is a variation of that in the first module: Harkhuf is now sent out alone (a’). Harkhuf’s action in response, the event of “accomplishing a trip” (c) is elaborated into its constituent parts, “going out” and “descending” (i.e., returning) (c’). The event of “descending” is itself triplicated, and serves as an anchor for elaborations of the actions of bringing back produce (d’) and opening a new road to Iam (b’). Through this triplication and elaboration, the successful return to Egypt is celebrated. Such dimensions, and many more that are present in the text, can be described verbally in all manner of analytical details. To be communicated in a more intuitively appealing manner, however, they call, complementarily, for a dynamic visual representation.
3 Representing Inscriptions as Visual Compositions
Inscriptions are often laid out in careful ways. Through layout, salient articulations or expressions can be foregrounded, the poetic structure of a text can be mirrored visually, and core meanings can be projected over the inscribed surface. In some cases, the complexity of the layout suggests that the texts were probably composed directly with a view on how they would exist visually on the inscribed surface. More generally, inscriptions appear to be visual compositions as much as compositions of words.
As noted above, the poetic form of Hezi’s autobiography is tripartite and centrally focused. On the monument, the inscription is laid out in such a way that parts I and III correspond to columns 1–2 and 4–5, respectively, while the central middle part II corresponds exactly to the middle column 3 (Figure 19.6). Layout thus mirrors one level in the poetic form of the inscription.
In part III, Hezi says that he has performed duties for the king and been granted benefactions well beyond his rank. This is expressed verbally through contrastive comparisons: “… as if (mr m) a royal chamberlain, even though I was (m) a territorial administrator” (col. 4); … in the manner (done) (5)among (m rꜢ-Ꜥ mm) officials, even though I was (m) a judiciary inspector of scribes …” (col. 4–5). The rhetoric articulation is based on the prepositional expressions. These are emphasized visually through occupying the whole breadth of their columns and/or being surrounded by empty space (see Figure 19.5, with close-up for … mr m … m … in col. 4 and … mm … on top of col. 5).
Turning to my second example, Harkhuf’s façade, the architrave above the doorway has four offering formulae (ll. 1–3, 8). Each begins with the word nsw “king” and ends with Harkhuf’s name, itself associated with the seated figure of the official. In the ideal autobiography in between the offering formulae (ll. 4–7), all four lines begin with references to Harkhuf (Figure 19.7). Both horizontally and vertically, the king and Harkhuf are thus set in relation to one another on the architrave that forms the visually most exposed part of the inscribed monument.
Figure 19.7
Harkhuf, architrave, representation of one level of inscriptional layout
Figure 19.8a–b
Harkhuf, architrave, representation of further levels of inscriptional layout
In the ideal autobiography, the vocative address to “the living” (l. 5) is inscribed just above the doorway through which the visitor is to enter the tomb (Figure 19.8a). The plural is written in the longest way possible, lending further graphic emphasis to the address. Another reference to the visitor is also inscribed above that doorway (l. 6). The beginning of the invocation offering that the visitor is to pronounce, “A thousand bread …,” at the end of line 5, is set in correspondence to Harkhuf’s similarly worded statement “I have given bread …,” at the beginning to the same line (Figure 19.8b). The invocation offering is split over two lines in a way that underscores the action itself, an action of giving: “A thousand bread and a thousand beer (6)for the owner of this tomb!” These words, to be pronounced by the ritually acting visitor, sit precisely in the middle (end of l. 5 and beginning of l. 6) of the ideal autobiography (ll. 4–7). The layout thereby underscores the ritual dimensions of the monument.
In the developed titulary on the right side of the entrance (see above), one epithet is split over two columns, R(ight).2–3: “… who places the dread of (R.3)[Horus in] the foreign lands …” (Figure 19.9). The epithet occupies the exact middle position of the second part of the titulary, in columns R.2–3. Moreover, the one “who places …,” Harkhuf, is fittingly on bottom of R.2, while the king is on top of R.3. Going further yet, the king, on top of R.3, is set in relation to the name of Harkhuf, at the bottom of the same column, as well as of R.1. Through layout, a relation of reciprocity is expressed between Harkhuf’s action of projecting the king’s dread into foreign countries and Harkhuf’s name, a sentential name meaning “Horus (the king) protects me.”
The event autobiography (R.4–14, as well as lines 1–9 on the left side of the façade) is introduced by “He says: …,” set on top of R.4. It is linked to the preceding titulary (R.1–3) by horizontal adjacencies across columns R.3 and R.4 (Figure 19.10a). These associate Harkhuf and his father, and Harkhuf and the king. Another link between titulary and event autobiography involves a relation over a distance. At the end of the right side of the façade, the last column is self-contained and reads: “(R.14, top)I satisfied him (= the ruler of Iam) in such ways that he would keep praising all the gods for the Sovereign.(R.14, bottom)” (Figure 19.10b). The statement echoes the epithet just discussed, “… who places the dread of (R.3, top)[Horus in] the foreign lands …” Both are emphasized through layout. In echoing one another, they frame the right side of the façade as a whole.
Figure 19.10a–b
Harkhuf, right side of façade, representations of multiple relations between titulary and event autobiography
The first part of the event autobiography, on the right side of the façade (R.4–14), is laid out in such a way that the top of most columns consists in expressions of Harkhuf’s agency in acting for the king (Figure 19.11): “(R.5)I have accomplished it … (R.6)me acting alone … (R.7)after I have brought back produce … (R.9)after I have opened these foreign lands … (R.11)I have gone out through Ta-wer … (R.14)I have satisfied …” In direct visual contact with Harkhuf’s staff of authority, the lower part of column R.6 consists of locales travelled by Harkhuf and indications of duration (Figure 19.12a): “… through Irtjet, specifically Mekher, Tereres, and Iertjetj, in a period of 8 months. I descended …” The iconic determinatives and the numerical notations make this a visual message accessible also to non-fully literate viewers. The shorter columns R.8–13 all end with further toponyms, looked at by Harkhuf or surrounding his head (Figure 19.12b). The last column (R.14) ends with an uncommon designation of the king (jtw). For an expedition leader, “who places the dread of Horus in the foreign lands” (R. 2–3), and “pacifies” foreign rulers for the “Sovereign” (R.14), this makes a fitting visual biography, surrounding his standing figure.
Figure 19.11
Harkhuf, autobiography, right side: representation of one level of inscriptional layout
The royal letter inscribed on the outer right of the façade adopts the expected format of the royal decree. After two horizontal lines (1–2), the letter proper consists of twenty-two columns (3–24) with a concluding note on the implementation of the royal order (25–26). In this letter, the king Neferkare praises Harkhuf for having brought back a dwarf from Iam and compares this action to that of another expedition leader, Werdjededba, in the time of another king, Izezi, a century or so earlier. The names of the two kings occur twice each, as does that of Werdjededba. Five of six occurrences are either on top or on the bottom of the columns, alternating for each name (Figure 19.13a, with a representation of the names of Neferkare, in red, and Izezi, in yellow). The visual result is a chiastic arrangement, binding the present to the past.
A number of horizontal adjacencies underscore what the letter is about by associating elements with one another across columns (Figure 19.13b): the “dwarf,” the names of the two kings, the dwarf’s condition (“alive, whole, and in good health”), and its destination (“the god’s dances”). In his letter, the king speaks of how future generations will hear of the benefactions that he pledges to bestow on Harkhuf (col. 13–14: Figure 19.13a). The key term, “as they (= the people to come) hear …” (sḏm.sn …) is inscribed on top of column 13. Moreover, these columns 13–14, concerned with the reception to come of the royal letter (and, by extension, of the monument as a whole), occupy the exact center of the letter proper after the first ten columns (3–12) and before the next ten (15–24).
Figure 19.12a–b
Harkhuf, autobiography, right side: representations of further levels of inscriptional layout
Figure 19.13a–b
Neferkare’s letter to Harkhuf, representations of some elements of inscriptional layout
Figure 19.14
Harkhuf’s façade, representation of overall layout
The façade as a whole is laid out in a manner that is meaningful geographically (Figure 19.14). On the right (northern) side of the façade, motion “to Iam” (to the south) is emphasized, while the left (southern) side is about motion “to the Residence” (to the north). The royal letter replicates that configuration, with motion “to Iam” emphasized in its right (northern) part and motion “to the Residence” is its left (southern) part. Viewed as a whole, this royal letter is inscribed on the outer right (north) of the façade, pointing to its origin, in the far-northern Memphite Residence. The royal letter is set in correspondence to a previous letter, not inscribed but mentioned: that sent by Harkhuf to Neferkare’s predecessor, Merenre. The mention of this previous letter by Harkhuf is inscribed on top of the left (southern) side of the façade (Left, lines 1–2), pointing to its own place of origin, in the far south, the place of maximal distance from both Elephantine and the Residence (Left 1–2). The layout thereby links Harkhuf, “who brings the produce of all foreign lands for his lord,” and the king, who command, praises, and writes from the north. The real and ideological geography of the text is thus projected over the bi-dimensional surface of the inscribed monument.
4 Conclusion
The features of poetic form and inscriptional layout presented above are not just formal but meaningful: for instance, of the deeply rhetorical nature of Hezi’s inscription; or of how Harkhuf’s façade has a strong ritual dimension, as well as projecting royal agency in the far southern locale of Qubbet el-Hawa. The value of a digital presentation lies in making these dimensions more directly accessible and to more people. For inscriptional layout, referring to how a text exists in the bi-dimensional visual space of the inscription, the value of visualization is immediate. The poetic form concerns the “verbal text” but it calls no less for visualization when complex enough, as the examples above illustrate. As these examples also illustrate, multiple levels are involved in both the poetic structure and the inscriptional layout, and the two dimensions are interrelated in meaningful ways. A digital presentation would permit navigation between visualizations of multiple interrelated levels of both poetic structure and inscriptional layout, all of these in transliteration, translation, and, ideally, on photographs of the inscription itself.
Both the poetic form and the inscriptional layout can be described and analyzed verbally. This description and analysis is itself an interpretative procedure, and therefore one that must be justified verbally. Print publications with lengthy verbal commentary therefore are and will remain the natural forum to study the inscriptions. But the results of such research must also be communicated in more immediate ways and disseminated to a broader public in the field and outside it. Beyond verbal commentary (of which the text of the present article is a condensate), a digital visualization (such as suggested by the figures of the present article) is desired for objects as complex as inscriptions. Through visualization and navigation, it can present poetic structure and inscriptional layout in a more intuitively synthetic and interactively experienceable way. Moreover, dynamic visual presentations can stimulate the imagination, and thereby raise further questions on form and meaning of both individual inscriptions and groups of inscriptions.
Acknowledgments
Research for the present paper was carried out in the project “Monumental Discourse in 3d Millennium Egypt” (Université de Genève & Fonds national Suisse, SNSF Professorship PP00P1 163767). I thank Andréas Stauder for reading through my English.
I draw on the more detailed analyses in Stauder-Porchet 2015 (Hezi) and Stauder-Porchet 2020a–b (Harkhuf). A general discussion of the dimension of inscriptional layout in the Old Kingdom is offered in Stauder-Porchet 2021.
References
Stauder-Porchet, J. 2015. “Hezi’s Autobiographical Inscription: Philological Study and Interpretation.” Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde 142.2: 191–204.
Stauder-Porchet, J. 2020a–b. “Harkhuf’s Inscriptions. I. Genres, Compositional Schemes, Rhetoric.” Zeitschrift Für Ägyptische Sprache Und Altertumskunde 147.1: 57–91; “Harkhuf’s Inscriptions II. The Inscribed Façade.” Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde 147.2: 197–222.
Stauder-Porchet, J. 2021. “Inscriptional Layout in Continuous Texts of the Old Kingdom.” Bulletin de l’Institut français d’archéologie orientale 121: 441–474.