Index
Abelard, scholar and monk
7
on corrections
195
death
102–3, 135
designates Heloise as spiritually superior
85
Historia Calamitatum (Story of My Misfortunes)
27, 117, 196
humility
174–5
on the monastery
62
Rule for the nuns of the Paraclete
27, 85, 116, 121–2
shared learning
175–6, 190–1, 196
Abelard and Heloise
7
Abelard; Heloise
letters
27–8
lives
26–7
accusations
Geoffrey of Vendôme on
126–7
Adam of Perseigne, abbot
9–10, 55, 58, 85
advice to nuns
198, 199
canon then monk
209
on fear
162
on friendship
141
letters
36, 147–8
Liber de Mutuo Amore ad Sacras Virgines (The Book of Mutual Love)
36
life
36
on reciprocal learning exchange
198–9
request for advice
148
on success factors for novices
109
on the word “novice”
51, 158
adult converts, monastic communities
20, 51, 184–5
advice
and friendship
146–7
giving and receiving
152–3
request for, Adam of Perseigne
148
requests for
147
Aelfric Bata, Colloquies (Conversations)
83
Aelred (or Ailred) of Rievaulx, abbot
De Spiritali Amicitia (On Spiritual Friendship)
35, 80, 139–40
on friendship
104–5, 140
letters
35–6
life
35
Agobard of Lyon, archbishop
57
Amalricus of Jerusalem, bishop, letter to Hildegard of Bingen
200–1
anchorites
hermits
definition
220
shared learning
13–14, 221, 223, 224, 225–6
Anselm of Canterbury, abbot and bishop
9, 84
on fear
162, 163
on learning opportunities
53
letter collection
24–5, 39
letter to Bec Abbey
91
letter to Lanfranc
52, 165
letters to women
197–8
life
24
on monastic life
164–5
on reciprocal learning exchange
217
on shame
159–60
on worthy associations
77–8
atonement, public, Geoffrey of Vendôme on
131
Augustine of Hippo
co-discipleship
81
De Virginitate
106
autobiographical narratives
self-accusation
model of Augustine’s Confessions
117
Guibert of Nogent’s soliloquy
117
Nicholas of Clairvaux’s self-analysis and expression
117
Otloh of Saint Emmeram
117
Basil of La Grande Chartreuse, prior
on Cluny Abbey
68–9
letter to Peter the Venerable
68
Baudri of Bourgueil, abbot
on avoidance of wrongdoing
102
on Bourgueil Abbey
62
letter collection
25
letter to Constance
102
letter to Muriel of Wilton
150
life
25
on monastic life
106
poetic letters
25
Beatrice of Tienen, Life
75
Bec Abbey, letter from Anselm of Canterbury
91
behaviour
change
230
and imitation
105, 113
monastic communities as observers
102–3
Odo of Saint-Victor on
214–15
Benedictine Rule see Rule of Saint Benedict
Berengar of Tours
23
Bernard of Cerne, abbot
90
Bernard of Clairvaux
7, 18, 21, 84–5
on bottom-up learning
88
brother Gerard as source of consolation
133–4
brother Gerard’s death
86–7
on Clairvaux Abbey
63
distrust of solitude
76
humility
87, 108, 113–14, 149
on imitation, perfume metaphor
108
on individual conscience
120
letter
28
from Peter the Venerable
71–2
letter collection
30, 39, 208–9
letter to canon Oger
210
letter to nun of Troyes
96, 97, 105, 197, 217, 220–1
letter to Pope Eugene III
50
letter to Robert of Châtillon
50, 157, 169
letters on friendship to Ermengarde of Anjou
96
letters as spiritual director to women
96
letters to Rainald of Foigny
148–9
letters to women
30, 196–7
life
29
on Malachy of Ireland’s death
107
on Malachy of Ireland’s spiritual perfection
107–8
on mistrusting own judgement
145–6
on monastic life
158
on endless progress
59–60
Peter the Venerable of Cluny, correspondence
29–30
refusal to be own master
79
on shame
161–2
on shared learning
92–3
on the solitary life
92, 97
William of Saint-Thierry, reciprocal learning exchange
94
Bernard of Portes, prior
132–3, 163–4, 224
bottom-up learning
227
Bernard of Clairvaux on
88
Boynton, Susan
57, 108
Brown, George H., on learning the Psalter
56–7
Bruce, Scott
57, 108
Bruun, Mette Birkedal
67
Camaldolenses
18
canonical communities
monastic communities, distinction
208–9, 219
shared learning
13, 206, 208, 211
canons
canonical communities
letters and letter collections
211
monks, differences
207, 228
Walker Bynum on
206–7
Carthusians
18
cell
as hostile environment, William of Saint-Thierry on
65
as infirmary, William of Saint-Thierry on
65
as teaching agent
65
transformative value, Peter Damian on
64–5
celleraria office
55
Cesarius of Heisterbach, Dialogus Miraculorum (Dialogue on Miracles)
99
Chenu, Marie-Dominique
20
Chibnall, Marjorie
5
Cicero,
De Amicitia (On Friendship)
93
letters as colloquia absentium
141 fn 166
Cistercians
18, 29
Cîteaux Abbey
18, 29, 38
Clairvaux Abbey
5, 29
Bernard of Clairvaux on
63
cloister (claustrum), metonym for monastery
61
monastery
Cluniac monasteries, miracles
67
Cluny Abbey
Basil of La Grande Chartreuse on
68–9
Peter the Venerable on
63
co-discipleship
Augustine of Hippo
81
notion
81
Stephen of Chalmet on
80–1
Cochelin, Isabelle
66, 108
communities of learning
3
community, and shared learning
12–13
female communities; monastic communities
community of practice, theory
6–7
conflicts, monastic communities
187
conscience
attention to
20, 117, 118, 119, 120
Bernard of Clairvaux on
120
consolation
Bernard of Clairvaux’s brother Gerard as source
133–4
and corrections
132
and exhortation
137, 138, 230
and friendship
134–5, 136
letters
134–5
offering, Hildegard of Bingen on
217
Peter the Venerable on
133, 136
Rule of Saint Benedict
132
Constable, Giles
29, 42, 82
correction
Abelard on
195
acceptance of
123
and consolation
132
friendly
123–4, 125–6
mishandling of
127–9
mutual
230
Peter of Celle on
124–6
Peter Damian on
122–3, 132
reciprocal
145
self, and shame
160
Crispin, Gilbert, abbot
76–7
cultural history, and religion, intersections
20
custodia notion
need for
100
positive aspects
99
and sexual temptation
100
social control
98–9
and temptation of gluttony
100
discipline see monastic discipline
Eckbert, brother of Elisabeth of Schönau
33
Elisabeth of Schönau, abbess
32
letter collection
33, 201
letters to female communities
202–3
life
33
Elmer of Canterbury, prior, on friendship
141
enutrire, use by Peter of Celle
49
equality see spiritual equality
Ermengarde of Anjou, letters of friendship from Bernard of Clairvaux
96
Eugene III, pope, letter from Bernard of Clairvaux
50
exhortation
and consolation
137, 138, 230
and friendship
144–5
reciprocal
145
Rule of saint Benedict
144–5
fear
Adam of Perseigne on
162
Anselm of Canterbury on
162, 163
and the learning process
162
female communities
letters of Elisabeth of Schönau
202–3
shared learning
13, 39, 188–205, 194–5, 195–6
Foliot, Gilbert, abbot and bishop, letters
41
Fonte Avellana hermitage
22
friend, as custos animi (guardian of the other’s soul)
99
friendship
17, 29
Adam of Perseigne on
141
and advice
146–7
Aelred of Rievaulx on
104–5, 140
and consolation
134–5, 136
Elmer of Canterbury on
141
and equality
93
and exhortation
144–5
and fear of homosexuality
44
and letters of vocation
144
and personal progress
140
Peter Damian and abbot Albizo
118
Peter Damian on
123
scriptorium as place of
73–4
theme in letter-writing
43–4, 52–3
William of Aebelholt on
212–13
Geoffrey of Auxerre, abbot
30, 84
Geoffrey of Vendôme, abbot
72, 84, 86, 216
on accusations
126–7
Commentarius in Psalmos (Commentary on the Psalms)
26
letter collection
26
letter from Hildegard of Mans
136–7
life
26
praise of Hubert of Angers, as imitation model
112
on public atonement
131
shared learning
39
Gervase of Westminster, abbot
215
Gilbert of Hoyland, on monastic life
106
gluttony, temptation of, and custodia notion
100
Goscelin of Saint-Bertin, monk
Liber Confortatorius (The Book of Encouragement and Consolation)
24, 138–9
life
23–4
Grotans, Anna, Reading in Medieval Saint Gall
83
Guibert of Gembloux, abbot
32, 67, 137
conversations with Hildegard of Bingen
137–8, 176, 200
letter collection
34
life
33–4
Vita Sancti Martini (Life of saint Martin)
34, 176, 177
Guibert of Nogent, abbot
De Vita Sua (Autobiography)
26
life
25–6
Guido of Arezzo, monk and music theorist
57
Guido de Basochis, canon
211
Haseldine, Julian P. 32–3
Haskins, Charles Homer, The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century
15–16, 17
Hatto (or Hato) of Troyes, bishop
35
Hélinand of Froidmont, troubadour and then monk
67
Heloise, abbess
friendship with Peter the Venerable
93, 114, 135, 174, 190
head of community
194-5
letters from Peter the Venerable
27, 90, 93, 114, 135, 173, 188, 190, 194
spirituality
85
Herman, bishop of Ramsbury
24
hermits
anchorites
Peter the Venerable on
91, 221
Rule of saint Benedict
90–1, 221
shared learning
222–3
hierarchy
and shared learning
84, 85, 87
subversion of
199–200
High Middle Ages, shared learning
228–9
Hildegard of Bingen, abbess
84, 119
conversations with Guibert of Gembloux (1124/5-1214)
137–8, 176, 200
letter collection
32
letter from Amalricus of Jerusalem
200–1
life
32
on offering consolation
217
on social rank
186
Hildegard of Mans, bishop, letter to Geoffrey of Vendôme
136–7
Hildemar of Corbie, monk, Commentary on the Rule of Benedict
83
homosexuality, fear of, and friendship
44
horizontal learning
3, 227
and imitation
110–11
Hugh IV de Clermont, abbot, letter from Peter of Celle
56
Hugh of Preuilly, abbot
55–6
humility
218, 229
Abelard
174–5
Bernard of Clairvaux
87, 108, 113–14, 149
and imitation
111
and kitchen skills
71
need to show
154
nephew of Lanfranc of Canterbury
103
Peter of Celle
143
Peter Damian
89
and self-accusation
117
in shared learning
80, 88–9
imitation, and shared learning
12, 108, 116, 229
imitation (imitatio)
105–16
and adult novices
108–9
and appropriate behaviour
105, 113
Bernard of Clairvaux’s perfume metaphor
108
by Guibert of Nogent’s mother
109–11
of fellow monastic community members
107
forms of
106–7
and horizontal learning
110–11
and humility
111
of Jesus Christ
106–7
of Malachy of Ireland
107
model
Hubert of Angers as
112
John of Salisbury’s brother as
112
nun as
112–13
and shared learning
12, 108, 116
and sinners
114–16
as worthy undertaking
111
Innocent III, pope
215
invicem (by turns) notion
91
Ivo of Chartres, bishop, on monastic life
62–3
Jacob’s ladder metaphor
60
Jaeger, C. Stephen
207
Jeanmart, Gaëlle
207
John Cassian, Collationes
146
John of Fécamp, abbot, on nun as imitation model
112–13
judgement, mistrust of own, Bernard of Clairvaux on
145–6
Jutta, anchorite
32
kitchen skills, and humility
71
Knights Hospitaller (Templars)
19
knowledge sharing, shared learning
3, 231
Lanfranc, nephew of Lanfranc, humility
103
Lanfranc of Canterbury, monk and archbishop
defence of transubstantiation
23
letter collection
23
letter from Anselm
52, 165
letter to Odo of Chertsey
89
life
23
Monastic Constitutions
56, 66, 103, 109
on reciprocal learning exchange
92
on successful novitiate
103–4
Lanzo, monk of Cluny
9
Latin culture, long twelfth century
17
Lave, Jean
6
learning
bottom-up learning; communities of learning; horizontal learning; lifelong learning; monastic learning; shared learning
definition
3–4
non-written ways
5
as reciprocal learning exchange
37, 91–2
and Rule of saint Benedict
156
learning opportunities, Anselm of Canterbury on
53
learning process
and fear
162
and intra-monastic exchanges
63–4
monastic life as
48–9, 165–6
and the physical environment
54, 75
Leclercq, Jean
10, 40, 108
L’amour des lettres (The Love of Learning)
4
on letter-writing
211
letters and letter collections
17
monastic letters
Adam of Perseigne
36, 147–8
Anselm of Canterbury
24–5, 39
Baudri of Bourgueil
25
Bernard of Clairvaux
30, 39, 208–9
canons
211
consolation
134–5
as colloquia absentium
141 fn 166
Elisabeth of Schönau
33, 201
evidence of individual progress (proficio)
59
on friendship
42–3
Geoffrey of Vendôme
26
Hildegard of Bingen
32
Lanfranc of Canterbury
23
Nicholas of Clairvaux
35
Osbert of Clare
31, 192
Peter of Celle
32–3
Peter Damian
22–3
Peter the Venerable
28–9, 135
physical environment in
61–2, 67-8
on spiritual directions
85
study methodology
40
variety of
42–3
William of Aebelholt
212
William of Saint-Thierry
31
to women, Peter the Venerable of Cluny
188
letter-writing
monastic letters; letters and letter collections
formal structure
43
friendship theme
43–4, 52–3
golden age
17
Leclercq on
211
monastic life
45–6
popularity
211
purposes
9
recruitment aims
45
rhetoric
43
shared learning
45
sources for shared learning
8–10
and spiritual direction
44–5
by women
37
lifelong learning
4, 60
monastic life as
12, 52, 57–8, 58–9, 61, 94–5
literacy
17
literary works, exchanges of
150–1
long twelfth century
11, 15–22
Latin culture
17
as renaissance
15–16
McGuire, Brian Patrick, Friendship and Community
134
magistri, references to
83
Malachy of Ireland, abbot and archbishop
Bernard of Clairvaux on his perfection
107–8
Bernard of Clairvaux letter on death of
107
imitation of
107
Marcigny, female monastery
190
Marmoutier Abbey
176
master-disciple roles
78–9, 81–2
co-discipleship
equality
83
horizontal exchanges
90
temporality
83
Matilda of Fontevrault, abbess, letter from Peter of Celle
124
Maurice, monk of Bec
178–9
book acquisitions
179–80
medieval education, sources
8
meditations, sharing
151
mendicant orders
19
Milo I of Therouanne, bishop, letter from Peter the Venerable
115
miracles, Cluniac monasteries
67
monastery
Abelard on
62
leaving, Peter the Venerable on
101
metaphors referring to
62
superiority to eremitical life
97–8
monastic communities
adult converts
20, 51, 184–5
canonical communities, distinction
208–9, 219
competition among
21
conflicts
187
imitation of fellow members
107
intra-monastic transitions
20, 178–9, 180–4
monks’ contributions
176–7, 177–8, 178–9
networks
20
nobility in
186–7
novices
19–20
as observer of behaviour
102–3
peer control
101
shared learning
13, 184, 208, 209–10, 218–19
skills acquisition
54–5
social control
98, 101
social origins
185–6
monastic discipline
119–21
accusations; correction
monastic learning
shared learning
letters
7
sources
7–8
verbs describing
49
monastic letters
10
references to helping monks
82
monastic life
Anselm of Canterbury on
164–5
Baudri of Bourgueil on
106
Bernard of Clairvaux on
158
Gilbert of Hoyland on
106
integration into
172–3
Ivo of Chartres on
62–3
as learning process
48–9, 165–6
and letter-writing
45–6
as lifelong learning
12, 52, 57–8, 58–9, 61, 94–5
personal bonds, formation
166–7
unsuccessful adaptations
167–8
unsuccessful adaptation by Robert of Châtillon
169–70
William of Saint-Thierry on
157–8
monasticism
criticism of
18
diversity of
11
transformations
19
monks
canons, differences
207, 228
contribution to their communities
176–7, 177–8, 178–9
definition
61
reputation
215
supervision of young boys
82
troublesome
168–9
useful
173
visiting
75
Morris, Colin, The Discovery of the Individual
20
mortification of the body, Peter Damian on
57
music training
57
Nicholas of Clairvaux, monk
30, 80
letter collection
35
life
34–5
on the scriptorium
72–3
self–analysis
117
theological disagreement with Peter of Celle
151–2
Niskanen, Samu
25
nobility, in monastic communities
186–7
novice, Adam of Perseigne on
51, 158
novices
adult, and imitation
108–9
monastic communities
19–20
separate quarters
66
successful, Adam of Perseigne on
109
transformative processes
51
unsuccessful
168, 173–4
novitiate, successful, Lanfranc of Canterbury on
103–4
nuns
advice from Adam of Perseigne
198, 199
advice from Osbert of Clare
192–3
ideal virtues
191
shared learning
190, 205
Odo of Chertsey, abbot, letter from Lanfranc of Canterbury
89
Odo of Saint-Victor, regular canon
37, 208, 211, 216–17
on behaviour
214–15
letter collection
213–14
Odon of Ourscamp, monk
158
Olsen, Derek A.
57
Osbert of Clare
13
advice to nuns
192–3
letter collection
31, 192
life
31
on shared learning
192–3
Otloh of Saint Emmeram, monk
75
Liber de Temptatione (Book of Temptations)
117
Otter, Monika
138
Paré, Gérard, Brunet, Adrien, and Tremblay, Pierre, La renaissance du XIIe siècle
16
pedagogical writings
8
peer control, monastic communities
101
personal bonds, monastic life
166–7
personal progress, and friendship
140
Peter Abelard see Abelard
Peter of Celle, abbot
121
on a dream threat to the community
69–70
on friendly correction
124–6
humility
143
on John of Salisbury’s brother, as imitation model
112
letter collection
32–3
letter to Hugh of Preully
124
letter to Hugh IV de Clermont
56
letter to Matilda of Fontevrault
124
letter to Peter the Venerable
142
letters to the monks of Montier-la-Celle
69
life
32
on monks as ants
68
on monks as doves
68
relationship with John of Salisbury
79
self-abasement
142–3
on skills acquisition
55–6
theological disagreement with Nicholas of Clairvaux
151–2
use of verb enutrire
49
Peter Damian, prior and cardinal-bishop
60
career
22–3
on corrections
122–3, 132
on daily life in Fonte Avellana
99
definition of monks
61
on friendship
123
friendship with abbot Albizo
118
humility
89
letter collection
22–3
on mortification of the body
57
self-accusation
118
on the transformative value of the cell
64–5
Peter of Pavia, papal legate
34
Peter of Poitiers, monk of Cluny, friendship with Peter the Venerable
93, 143–4
Peter the Venerable of Cluny, abbot
13, 27
Bernard of Clairvaux, correspondence
29–30
on Cluny Abbey
63
on consolation
133, 136
De Miraculis (Book on Miracles)
eremitical retreat
222
on friendship with Peter of Poitiers
93, 143–4
and Hatto of Troyes, reciprocal learning exchange
94
on hermits
91, 221
on leaving the monastery
101
letter
28
to Bernard of Clairvaux
71–2
letter collection
28–9, 135
letter from Basil of La Grande Chartreuse
68
letter from Peter of Celle
142
letter to Adela of Blois
188
letter to brother Pontius
100, 133
letter to Milo I of Therouanne
115
letter to women
188
letters to Heloise
90, 93, 114, 135, 173, 188, 190
life
28
on living with exceptional individuals
113
Peter of Poitiers encounter
133
praise of Abelard’s humility
174–5
shared learning
39
on the solitary life
221
speaking advice
223
Philip of Harvengt, canon regular
211
on monastic communities
220
De Institutione Clericorum (On the Knowledge of Clerics)
220
Philip of Heinsberg, archbishop
34
physical environment
61–76
and learning process
54, 75
in letters
61–2
porter role
71
prayer, and temptation
154
Psalter
Brown on learning
56–7
time to master
57
Rainald of Foigny, abbot
189
letters from Bernard of Clairvaux
148–9
Raingard, mother of Peter the Venerable
28, 55, 136, 189, 203
reciprocal learning exchange
Adam of Perseigne on
198–9
Anselm of Canterbury on
217
Bernard of Clairvaux and William of Saint-Thierry
94
between equals
92
Lanfranc of Canterbury on
92
learning as
37, 91–2
Peter the Venerable and Hatto of Troyes
94
recruitment, and letter-writing
45
Regula Benedicti (Rule of saint Benedict)
18, 29, 37, 56, 122
arriving late at Vigils
160
consolation
132
exhortation
144–5
hermits
90–1, 221
and learning
156
path to spiritual progress
207
supervision of young boys
82
Regula Magistri (Rule of the Master)
57
Reinhard of Reinhausen, abbot
83
Reindel, Kurt
22
religion, and cultural history, intersections
20
religious transformations
17–18
Robert of Châtillon, monk
letter from Bernard of Clairvaux
50, 157, 169
unsuccessful adaptation to monastic life
169–70
Saint Gall
83
Saurette, Marc
67
school, and cloister, competition
21
scriptorium (scribal room)
Nicholas of Clairvaux on
72–3
place of friendship
73–4
silence rule
74
self-abasement, Peter of Celle
142–3
self-accusation
119
autobiographical narratives
and humility
117
Peter Damian
118
self-analysis, sharing
152
self-discovery
20–1
Şenocak, Neslihan
211
sexual temptation, and custodia notion
100
shame
Anselm of Canterbury on
159–60
on being late for Vigils
160
Bernard of Clairvaux on
161–2
and self-correction
160
shared learning
4
monastic learning
Abelard
175–6, 190–1, 196
anchorites
13–14, 221, 223, 224, 225–6
Bernard of Clairvaux on
92–3
bottom-up learning exchanges
7, 88
canonical communities
13, 206, 208, 211
canons
13, 206
community effects
12–13, 170–87
conflict potential
231
context
11–12
daily
155
diversity of
10, 39
in female communities
13, 39, 188–205, 194–5, 195–6
gendered perceptions
232
Geoffrey of Vendôme
39
hermits
222–3
in High Middle Ages
228–9
horizontal learning exchanges
7
humility in
80, 88–9
and imitation
12, 108, 116, 229
individual effects
156–70
informality
227
knowledge sharing
3, 231
letter sources
8–9, 231–2
letter-writing
45
monastic communities
13, 184, 208, 209–10, 218–19
nuns
190, 205
Osbert of Clare on
192–3
pervasiveness
228
Peter the Venerable of Cluny
39
reciprocity
227
similarities
11
social control
12
sources
8, 232
subversion of hierarchy
84, 85, 87
transformative effect
157, 230–1
value of
14
and values of medieval monasticism
22
sign language, monastic
74
silence rule, scriptorium
74
sinners, and imitation
114–16
situated learning spaces
70, 75–6
skills acquisition
monastic communities
54–5
Peter of Celle on
55–6
social control
peer control
custodia notion
98–9
monastic communities
98, 101
shared learning
12
social environment
76–95
social interaction, definition
7 fn 20
social rank, Hildegard of Bingen on
186
solitary life
Bernard of Clairvaux on
92, 97
Peter the Venerable on
221
solitude, distrust of, Bernard of Clairvaux
76
Song of Songs
94, 125
Sophie of Kitsingen, abbess
84
speaking advice, Peter the Venerable
223
spiritual directions, letters
85
spiritual equality, and friendship
93
spiritual parenthood notion
50–1
spiritual progress
Rule of saint Benedict
207
search for
60–1
Stephen of Chalmet, monk, on co-discipleship
80–1
Stephen of Tournai, bishop
83
Strabo, Walafrid, monk, poem about vegetable garden
72
Suger of Saint-Denis, abbot, letters
41
suicide, prevention
99–100
Templars see Knights Hospitaller
temptation
and prayer
154
resisting
154
Thomas Becket, letters
41
Vanderputten, Steven
6, 19
vegetable garden
Strabo’s poem about
72
verbs, describing monastic learning
49
virgins, advice to
189–90
vocation, letters, and friendship
144
Walker Bynum, Caroline
208
on canons
206–7
Wenger, Étienne
6
Wibald of Stavelot, abbot
84
letter collection
40–1, 129–31
William of Aebelholt
canon
211
on friendship
212–13
letter collection
212
William of Saint-Thierry
Bernard of Clairvaux, reciprocal learning exchange
94
on the cell as hostile environment
65
on the cell as infirmary
65
on divine Mercy
48
on entering monastic life
157–8
Epistola Aurea (Golden Epistle)
31, 60, 225
joins Cistercians
60
life
31
Meditativae Orationes (Meditations)
31, 48
visited the Carthusians
60
Vita Prima Sancti Bernardi (First Life of Bernard of Clairvaux)
31