Figures
0.1 The location of both 1) the Mardzong cave complex at the elevation 3877 m above sea level—the site where the manuscript collection was discovered—and 2) the Choede Monastery Antique Museum in Lo Monthang, where the Mardzong manuscripts collection is preserved now, on the map of Mustang (Lo) in Nepal. Map by Dorota Maya Helman, courtesy of the Mardzong Manuscripts Project IX
0.2 The Mardzong hill and its surroundings—the site of manuscripts found in 2008. Elevation 3493 m above sea level. Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2016) X
0.3 The Mardzong cave complex. Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2017) XI
0.4 The ruins of Bonkhor located near Lo Monthang. Photograph courtesy of Charles Ramble XII
0.5 and 0.6 Visible damage on the Mardzong books leaves: folio fragment covered by bird droppings on the left, and an empty space left by a miniature cut out by looters on the right. Photographs by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2017) XIII
0.7 and 0.8 The repairs of paper tears in the Mardzong folios. Photographs by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2017) XIV
0.9 Monks giving the manuscripts folios a preliminary dusting by beating stacks of folios against rocks. Photograph by Charles Ramble (2008) XV
0.10 The second stage of cleaning and preliminary sorting of the folios before wrapping them in bundles. Photograph by Charles Ramble (2008) XVI
0.11 and 0.12 Left: The complex of Choede monastery. Right: The inner courtyard of the Choede monastery. Photographs by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2017) XVII
0.13 Interior of the Choede monastery Antique Museum with the Mardzong volumes stored on the left. Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2017) XVIII
1.1 Kali Gandaki river valley near Chusang. Photograph by Sarah Skumanov (2018) 5
1.2 The Nepal-China border in Mustang Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2018) 7
1.3 Fragment of newly-built road from the China-Nepal border to Choser. Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2018) 8
1.4 Jomsom airport nowadays. Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2018) 8
1.5 Cave complex above Di (Tib. Dri) village. Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2018) 11
1.6 Cave complex above Di (Tib. Dri) village. Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2018) 12
1.7 Ghami’s Mani wall (305 m long). Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2018) 14
2.1 Digitising and examining manuscripts in situ in the Choede monastery in Lo Monthang. Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2017) 18
2.2 Examining manuscripts in situ in the Choede monastery in Lo Monthang. Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2017) 18
2.3 Photographing manuscripts in Choede monastery. Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2016) 20
2.4 Photographing a manuscript folio against the light in Choede monastery. Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2017) 20
2.5 The woven type of paper with a fibre distribution typical for a floating type of paper-making mould. Photograph by Agnieszka Helman- Ważny (2015) 29
2.6 Laid paper characterized by 12 laid lines in 3 cm. Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2011) 29
2.7 The diagram of the chain and laid lines pattern visible in the structure of laid paper. Diagram by Dorota Maya Helman (2016) 30
2.8 Lucie Vignon measuring paper thickness with calipers. Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2017) 31
3.1 a–p First preserved folios from the 16 volumes of the Khams chen (a Perfection of Wisdom text).
Photographs by Kemi Tsewang (2016) 41
3.2 Folio 223 recto of the Ka ’dus (a short Perfection of Wisdom text) Photograph by Kemi Tsewang (2016) 42
3.3 Folio 2 recto of the gZer mig. Photograph by Rajmund Radziewicz (2018) 42
3.4 a Klu ’bum 1, folio 5 recto. Photograph by Rajmund Radziewicz (2018) 47
3.4 b Klu ’bum 1, folio 6 recto. Photograph by Rajmund Radziewicz (2018) 47
3.5 Compilation of canonical dhāraṇīs, vol. cha, folio 3 recto. Photograph by Rajmund Radziewicz (2018) 48
4.1 Folio 2 verso of Khams chen volume ga (3) on top and folio 3 recto below. The text on folio 2 verso is written upside-down in relation to folio 3 recto when all leaves are properly bound in the volume. Photograph by Kemi Tsewang (2016) 50
4.2 a b c d Remaining fragments of the gold-lettered first folios found together with the Mardzong collection. Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2017) 51
4.3 Diagram of an example page layout from volume ka (1) with measurements. The writing surface is delineated by a blue frame. Diagram prepared by Dorota Maya Helman (2018) 54
4.4 a and b The inked guidelines (ruling) on the left, and marks (holes) of the layout measurements on the right in the text of Khams chen vol. ca (5). Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2017) 54
4.5 Foliation indicating that this folio belongs to volume ta (11) and is numbered 223 (two hundred rendered as two crosses). The letter ta is written in red ink and the number 223 in black ink. Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2017) 55
4.6 Foliation indicating that this folio belongs to volume ka (1) and is numbered 297. The letter ka is written in red ink and the number 297 in black ink (two hundred is rendered as two crosses, but differently from in the previous figure). Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2017) 55
4.7 Folio from vol. ja (7) with an area ready for an illumination that was never completed. Photograph by Kemi Tsewang (2016) 56
4.8 a and b Miniatures from Khams chen vol. da (11) showing gShen bsam pa ye’u (on the left) and from vol. pa (13) showing gShen bsang ba hos legs (on the right). Photographs by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2018) 57
4.9 On the left, a stupa (dGe ldan yon tan ’byung pa’i mchod rten); on the right another stupa (gYung drung dbang gi mchod rten) in the text of Khams chen vol. ga (3) on folio 358 (+++ 58). Photograph by Kemi Tsewang (2016) 58
4.10 The layout of illuminated folio 117 recto from vol. ka (1) with the illustration composed left of the circle and tightly fitted into the text, which is marked by uneven distribution of the text around the miniature. Photograph by Kemi Tsewang (2016) 58
4.11 Folio 2 recto from the Khams chen vol. nya (8) from the Mardzong collection with a visible decoration in the side margins. Photograph by Kemi Tsewang (2016) 59
4.12 Folio 2 recto from the Khams chen vol. ta (9) from the Mardzong collection with a visible geometric decoration in the side margins. Photograph by Kemi Tsewang (2016) 59
4.13 An annotation, a mark to insert missing text. Folio 288 verso from the Khams chen vol. ta (9) from the Mardzong collection. Photograph by Kemi Tsewang (2016) 60
4.14 Folio 171 verso from the Khams chen vol. ta (9) with annotation marked with a swastika inserted in the fourth line of the text. Photograph by Kemi Tsewang (2016) 60
4.15 Folio 59 recto from the Khams chen vol. cha (6) with two annotations marked with a swastika in the sixth line of the text and a flame/cloud mark inserted in the seventh line of the text. Photograph by Kemi Tsewang (2016) 61
4.16 Folio from the Khams chen vol. cha (6) with two annotations marked with a swastika in the first line of the text and another mark inserted in the eighth line. Photograph by Kemi Tsewang (2016) 61
4.17 a, b, c Variation in yig mgo marks in Khams chen volumes. A. folio 143 recto vol. ca (5); B. folio 144 recto vol. ga (3); C. folio 11 recto vol. ka (1) 62
4.18 Seals on folio 40 recto from vol. ka (1). Photograph by Kemi Tsewang (2017) 62
4.19 Seal with swastika motif in vol. kha (2). Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2017) 62
4.20 a and b Seals in vol. ca (5) Photographs by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2017) 63
4.21 Text marked in red ink in Khams chen vol. tha (10), folio 113 to 115 verso (multiple numbers given on a single folio). Photograph by Kemi Tsewang (2016) Photograph by Kemi Tsewang (2016) 63
4.22 Signs of polishing possibly with river stone observed on Khams chen paper. Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2017) 64
4.23 Signs of polishing possibly with river stone observed on folio 3 from Khams chen vol. pha (14). Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2017) 64
4.24 Folio 312 from vol. ta (9) of the Khams chen. The paper made using a floating paper mould with a woven screen. Photograph by Kemi Tsewang (2016) 65
4.25 Colophon page made of woven type of paper observed against light. Photograph by Kemi Tsewang (2016) 65
4.26 Stellera fibres at 200× magnification observed in polarised light. Notice the varying fibre width and irregularities in fibre wall and lumen thickness. Identified in Khams chen vol. nya (8) from the Mardzong collection. Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2017) 67
4.27 Stellera and Daphne sp fibres at 200× magnification observed in polarised light. Note the varying fibre width and irregularities in fibre wall and lumen thickness. Identified in Khams chen vol. ta (9) from the Mardzong collection. Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2017) 67
4.28 Stellera and Daphne sp fibres at 200× magnification observed in polarised light. Notice the varying fibre width and irregularities in fibre wall and lumen thickness. Identified in Khams chen vol. tha (10) from the Mardzong collection. Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2017) 68
4.29 Diagram of the layout from volume ka (1) of the Ka ’dus text with measurements taken from folio 9 recto. The writing surface is delineated by a blue frame, despite the absence of an upper and lower margin. Diagram prepared by Dorota Maya Helman (2018) 68
4.30 Layout of folio 223 recto, vol. ka (1) of the Ka ’dus. Photograph by Kemi Tsewang (2016) 69
4.31 Traces of the polishing tool are visible in side light on folio 239 verso, vol. ka (1) of the Ka ’dus. Photograph by Kemi Tsewang (2016) 69
4.32 Uneven fibre distribution and impurities observed when seen against the light on folio 407, vol. ka (1) of the Ka ’dus. Photograph by Kemi Tsewang (2016) 70
4.33 Outer bark (dark) particles visible when observing the paper against the light in a close-up of folio 407, vol. ka (1) of the Ka ’dus. Photograph by Kemi Tsewang (2016) 70
4.34 Two lines of text in a frame on folio 2 recto, the gZer mig volume. Photograph by Kemi Tsewang (2016) 71
4.35 Three lines of text in a frame on folio 8 recto, the gZer mig volume. Photograph by Kemi Tsewang (2016) 71
4.36 Eight lines of text written between side margins on folio 13 recto, the gZer mig volume. Photograph by Kemi Tsewang (2016) 72
4.37 Diagram of the layout of the gZer mig text with measurements taken from folio 16. An approximate writing area is delineated by a blue frame. Diagram prepared by Dorota Maya Helman (2018) 72
4.38 Eight lines of text written between side margins and foliation in the left margin observed on folio 16 recto, vol. ka (1) of gZer mig. Photograph by Kemi Tsewang (2016) 73
4.39 Folio 16 of the gZer mig vol. ka (1) seen against light. Photograph by Kemi Tsewang (2016) 73
4.40 Folio 5 verso of Klu ’bum 1. Photograph by Kemi Tsewang (2016) 74
4.41 Folio 7 recto of Klu ’bum 2. Photograph by Kemi Tsewang (2016) 74
4.42 Diagram of the layout of the Klu ’bum 1 text with measurements taken from folio 5 recto. Diagram prepared by Dorota Maya Helman (2018) 75
4.43 Diagram of the layout of the Klu ’bum 2 text with measurements taken from folio 6 recto. Diagram prepared by Dorota Maya Helman (2018) 75
4.44 Guidelines made with brownish ink in Klu ’bum 1. Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2016) 76
4.45 Guidelines made by touching the folio with a string soaked in dye in Klu ’bum 2. Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2016) 76
4.46 a, b, c The foliation and annotation in both Tibetan dbu can and dbu med scripts featured in both the left (A) and right (B) margins of folio 72 recto of Klu ’bum 1. Foliation in the left margin of folio 179 recto of Klu ’bum 2 (C). Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2016) 77
4.47 Annotation in dbu med script on folio 41 verso of Klu ’bum 2. Photograph by Kemi Tsewang (2016) 78
4.48 Seals on folio 94 verso in Klu ’bum 2. Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2016) 78
4.49 a and b Left and right margin of Klu ’bum 1 on folio 55. Photographs by Rajmund Radziewicz (2018) 78
4.49 c and d C. Mal ’dam ’bul bal pa in the right margin of folio 196 recto of Klu ’bum 1. D. Making offerings (Mchod pa ’bul ba) in the text Klu ’bum 1 on folio 227 (++ 27). Photographs by Rajmund Radziewicz (2018) 79
4.50 Folio 55 recto of Klu ’bum 1. Photograph by Kemi Tsewang (2016) 79
4.51 Close-up of the black contour drawing of the main figure on folio 62 of Klu ’bum 1. Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2016) 79
4.52 a and b A. Flaking of the layer of paint on folio 62 of Klu ’bum 1. B. Close-up of the original flaking layer of paint later over-painted with brighter blue observed on folio 62 of Klu ’bum 1. Photographs by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2016) 80
4.53 Doodle drawings in the margins of Klu ’bum 2 on folio 84 recto. Photograph by Kemi Tsewang (2016) 80
4.54 a–g Doodle drawings in the margins of Klu ’bum 2. A. folio 80 recto. B. folio 206 recto. C. folio 80 recto. D. folio 84 recto. E. folio 88 recto. F. folio 103 verso. G. folio 193 recto. Photographs by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2016) 81
4.55 a, b Repair of damaged paper by sewing the sides of a tear on the left (A), and a close-up of this on the right (B), observed on folio 77 of the Klu ’bum 1. Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2016) 81
4.56 Folio 14 recto of Klu ’bum 2. Photograph by Kemi Tsewang (2016) 82
4.57 Repair of damaged paper with fragments of other texts in Klu ’bum 1. Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2016) 82
4.58 Polishing traces visible only on the writing surface on folio 36 verso of the Klu ’bum 2. Photograph by Kemi Tsewang (2016) 83
4.59 Laid type of paper observed against light on folio 7 recto of the Klu ’bum 2. Photograph by Kemi Tsewang (2016) 83
4.60 Compilation of canonical dhāraṇīs, vol. cha (6), folio 2 recto (cha ’phags pa gnyis). Photograph by Kemi Tsewang (2016) 84
4.61 Compilation of canonical dhāraṇīs, vol. cha (6), folio 2 verso. Photograph by Kemi Tsewang (2016) 84
4.62 Compilation of canonical dhāraṇīs, vol. cha (6), folio 6 recto. Photograph by Kemi Tsewang (2016) 85
4.63 Diagram of the layout of the compilations of canonical dhāraṇīs, vol. cha (6). An approximate writing area is delineated by a blue frame. Diagram prepared by Dorota Maya Helman (2018) 85
4.64 a and b Fragment of the layout and handwriting in the compilation of canonical dhāraṇīs, vol. cha (6) observed with digital microscope. Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2016) 85
4.65 Animal glue particles on the surface of the compilation of canonical dhāraṇīs, vol. cha (6) observed with digital microscope. Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2016) 86
4.66 Stellera and Daphne fibres at 200× magnification observed in polarised light under an optical microscope. Compilation of canonical dhāraṇīs, vol. cha (6) from the Mardzong collection. Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2017) 87
4.67 Stellera and Daphne fibres at 200×magnification observed in polarised light under an optical microscope. Compilation of canonical dhāraṇīs, vol. cha (6) from the Mardzong collection. Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2017) 87
5.1 Access passages between Tibet and Nepal. Drawing based on the map published by Corneille Jest in 1975 99
5.2 The red hill of Samar with the ruins of a convent. Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2018) 99
5.3 The Rhirhi caves near Chusang left of Gonpa Gang. Photograph by Marion Poux (2018) 100
5.4 A sample of double-layered paper from Rhirhi 1 photographed in natural light. Photograph by Emilie Arnaud-Nguyen (2018) 102
5.5 Sample from the Samar cave photographed in natural light. Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2018) 103
5.6 The creamy paper of Rhirhi P1.1 photographed in angled light. Photograph by Emilie Arnaud-Nguyen (2018) 103
5.7 Fibre bundles observed in paper from Rhirhi P1.1 photographed in transmitted light. Photograph by Emilie Arnaud-Nguyen (2018) 103
5.8 Layered and processed paper from Mardzong Klu ’bum 1. Photograph by Emilie Arnaud-Nguyen (2018) 104
5.9 Traditional Nepalese floating mould documented by Jesper Trier. Photograph by Jesper Trier (1972, Plate 87, p. 118) 104
5.10 Manual fibre-spreading on the floating and woven type of mould in Karimila, Nepal. Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2017) 105
5.11 Fibre orientation patterns based on Peter Tschudin publication in 2002. Diagram prepared by Dorota Maya Helman (2018) 105
5.12 Process of polishing paper with a bamboo stick with a smooth stone fixed to one end. Photograph by Gajurel and Vaidya (1994) 106
5.13 Creamy paper with a binding thread. Rhirhi P1.2 photographed in low angled light. Photograph by Emilie Arnaud-Nguyen (2018) 107
5.14 A layers of paper visible on the edge of damage area in the sample Rhirhi 1 observed under Dino-Lite digital microscope. Photograph by Emilie Arnaud-Nguyen (2018) 107
5.15 A thick flaking coating observed in Rhirhi P1.0 under Dino-Lite digital microscope. Photograph by Emilie Arnaud-Nguyen (2018) 108
5.16 Paper of Rhirhi P1.2 damaged by insects. Presence of dust and sand recorded during observation under Dino-Lite digital microscope. Photograph by Emilie Arnaud-Nguyen (2018) 109
5.17 Mould fluorescence in Rhirhi P1.0 when observed under Dino-Lite digital microscope. Photograph by Emilie Arnaud-Nguyen (2018) 109
5.18 Presence of feather in Rhirhi P1.0 observed under Dino-Lite digital microscope. Photograph by Emilie Arnaud-Nguyen (2018) 110
5.19 Scientific classification of plants from Thymelaeaceae family based on Ferrari 2002. Diagram prepared by Dorota Maya Helman (2018) 112
5.20 Thin lumen (in blue circle); irregular cross-marking of “v” shape (in orange circle), and pectin next to fibres in Mardzong Klu ’bum 1 observed in polarised light at 200× magnification. Photograph by Emilie Arnaud-Nguyen (2018) 113
5.21 Irregularities in lumen and fibre walls (arrow-shaped) in Rhirhi P1.2 observed in polarised light at 200× magnification. Photograph by Emilie Arnaud-Nguyen (2018) 113
5.22 Presence of crystal in Rhirhi P1.0 observed in polarised light at 100× magnification. Photograph by Emilie Arnaud-Nguyen (2018) 113
5.23 Crystals in Rhirhi P1.0 observed in polarised light at 100× magnification. Photograph by Emilie Arnaud-Nguyen (2018) 114
5.24 Rounded and broken endings and pectin around fibres in Mardzong Klu ’bum observed in polarised light at 200× magnification. Photograph by Emilie Arnaud-Nguyen (2018) 114
5.25 Stellera thick and irregular lumen (orange arrows) and fibres with thin lumen (blue arrow) in Rhirhi 1 observed in polarised light at 200× magnification. Photograph by Emilie Arnaud-Nguyen (2018) 115
5.26 Short, rigid fibres associated with crystals in Rhirhi 1 observed in polarised light at 100× magnification. Photograph by Emilie Arnaud-Nguyen (2018) 116
5.27 Damaged fibres crumbling in a Samar Cave sample observed in polarised light at 200× magnification. Photograph by Emilie Arnaud-Nguyen (2018) 116
5.28 Rigid and bending fibres from Rhirhi 2 observed in polarised light at 50× magnification. Photograph by Emilie Arnaud-Nguyen (2018) 117
5.29 Fibrillated fibre from Mardzong Klu ’bum 1 observed at 200× magnification. Photograph by Emilie Arnaud-Nguyen (2018) 118
5.30 Fibrillated fibre stained purple with Herzberg stain from Mardzong Klu ’bum 1 observed in transmitted light at 200× magnification. Photograph by Emilie Arnaud-Nguyen (2018) 118
5.31 Unidentified fibres (orange arrows) from the Samar Cave observed in polarised light at 50× magnification. Photograph by Emilie Arnaud-Nguyen (2018) 119
5.32 A “knee” (circles), and thick, regular lumen (arrows) in the paper from the Samar Cave observed in polarised light at 200× magnification. Photograph by Emilie Arnaud-Nguyen (2018) 119
6.1 Folio 1 verso of Mardzong A 125
6.2 Folio 4 recto of Mardzong B 125
6.3 Folio 5 recto of Mardzong G 126
6.4 Folio 8 recto of Mardzong H 127
6.5 Folio 4 recto of Mardzong L 127
6.6 Folio 5 recto of Mardzong M 128
6.7 Folio 1 recto of Mardzong N 129
6.8 Folio 4 recto of Mardzong O 130
6.9 Folio 6 recto of Mardzong P 131
6.10 Folio 4 recto of Mardzong Q 131
6.11 Folio 3 recto of Mardzong R 132
6.12 Folio 5 recto of Mardzong S 133
6.13 Folio 3 recto of Mardzong T 134
6.14 Folio 13 recto of Mardzong U 134
6.15 Folio 1 recto of Mardzong V 135
6.16 Folio 1 recto of Mardzong VA 136
6.17 Folio 2 recto of Mardzong AA 136
6.18 Folio 1 recto of Mardzong AB 137
6.19 Folio 2 recto of Mardzong AI 138
6.20 Folio 6 recto from Mardzong AM 139
6.21 Folio 14 recto of Mardzong AN 140
6.22 Recto of Mardzong AR 141
6.23 Recto of Mardzong AS, a tsa ka li (initiation card) with damaged painting layer 142
6.24 Folio 110 recto of Mardzong C 143
6.25 Folio 10 recto of Mardzong D 144
6.26 Folio 4 recto of Mardzong DA 145
6.27 Folio 1 verso of Mardzong E 146
6.28 Folio 15 gong ma—therefore the first of two or more bearing the folio number 15—recto 147
6.29 Folio 37 recto of Mardzing I 147
6.30 Folio 219 recto of Mardzong X 148
6.31 Folio 260 recto of Mardzong Y 149
6.32 Folio 309 recto of Mardzong Z 150
6.33 Unknown folio from Mardzong AK 151
6.34 Folio 3 recto of Mardzong AL. A single folio, in rough dbu med, with five lines per folio side 151
6.35 Folio 3 recto of Mardzong AO 152
6.36 Recto of the dedication from a manuscript of Na rag pang kong 153
6.37 Folio 4 recto of Mardzong J 156
6.38 Folio 48 recto of Mardzong K 159
6.39 Folio 2 recto of Mardzong W 159
6.40 Folio 9 recto of Mardzong AD 160
6.41 Folio 11 recto of Mardzong AE 161
6.42 Recto of Mardzong AF 162
6.43 Recto of Mardzong AG 163
6.44 Folio 6 recto of Mardzong AH, one of just two blockprints in the collection 164
6.45 Folio 21 recto of Mardzong AJ 164
6.46 A receipt for a transaction involving barley and cash 165
6.47 Part of a scroll concerning divination 166
7.1 The location of the ruins of Bonkhor, mentioned in the dedication to the Khams chen, east of Mt Kailash and south of the Yarlung Tsangpo (Brahmaputra) river. Map prepared by Dorota Maya Helman (2018) 168
7.2 Diagram of the calibrated results of the radiocarbon dating of the Mardzong volumes. Diagram created by Tomasz Goslar (2017) 170
8.1 Paper used for calligraphy by Manu Yungdrung Tharchin from Triten Norbutse monastery in Kathmandu. Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2017) 175
8.2 A monk in Triten Norbutse monastery in Kathmandu polishing the surface of the sheet of paper in preparation for writing. Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2017) 177
8.3 Natural pigments used for ink and paints in Tibetan culture. Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2018) 179
8.4 A needle used to make layout marks through a couple of sheets of paper at once. Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2017) 180
8.5 Type of rule used for drawing straight lines when preparing the layout. Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2017) 181
8.6 Manu Yungdrung Tharchin scribing a book. Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2017) 181
8.7 A pen and brush used today by Manu Yungdrung Tharchin for scribing. Photograph by Agnieszka Helman-Ważny (2017) 182
9.1 Land for the construction of the museum in Lo Monthang. Photograph by Sarah Skumanov (2018) 192
9.2 The Museum of Antiquities, where the Mardzong collection is housed. Photograph by Sarah Skumanov (2017) 192
9.3 The entrance to the Museum of Antiquities in Lo Monthang. Photograph by Sarah Skumanov (2017) 193
9.4 Bird droppings on folios. Photograph by Sarah Skumanov (2017) 195
9.5 Bird feathers between folios. Photograph by Sarah Skumanov (2017) 195
9.6 Painted miniature with picture of Buddha cut from the manuscript. Photograph by Sarah Skumanov (2017) 196
9.7 Painted miniatures with pictures of Buddha cut/ torn from folios. Photograph by Sarah Skumanov (2017) 196
9.8 Damaged folio from a Bon manuscript. Photograph by Sarah Skumanov (2017) 197
9.9 An example of a painted miniature. Photograph by Sarah Skumanov (2017) 199
9.10 Folios from Buddhist Canon vol. cha (Compilation of Canonical dhāraṇīs). Photograph by Sarah Skumanov (2017) 200
9.11 An example of a painted miniature from Khams chen vol. ja (7). Photograph by Sarah Skumanov (2017) 200
9.12 Folio with highlights from Khams chen vol. ja (7). Photograph by Sarah Skumanov (2017) 201
9.13 Damaged folio from Khams chen vol. ga (3). Photograph by Sarah Skumanov (2017) 202
10.1 Triten Norbutse Dedication, possibly also from Mardzong. Photograph by Charles Ramble (1996) 206
Tables
4.1 The format and layout measurements of the Mardzong manuscripts 88
4.2 Paper analysis of the Mardzong collection. Plus (+) indicates the presence of the particular type of fibres in studied samples. Degree of blending is indicated by a number of pluses from one to four 90