Note on Transliteration
The transcription of Arabic, Hebrew and Ottoman Turkish generally follows the transliteration guidelines of the International Journal of Middle East Studies (IJMES) and the Library of Congress. Diacritics – except for ʿayn and non- initial hamza – have also been omitted in personal names, place names, names of political parties and organizations, as well as in the titles of books and articles. In cases where names of people and places have a standardized spelling in English, I adopted it. All technical terms from languages written in non-Latin alphabets have been italicized and fully transliterated with diacritical marks, except for those found in Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary or in the IJMES word list.