English translations from Arabic, Hebrew, and Persian are by the author unless otherwise noted.
Specific dates and centuries prior to the eighteenth century are given in hijrī (AH) and common era (CE) years or centuries.
Arabic transliteration follows the system used in the International Journal of Middle East Studies with contraction of the article (al- and l) and tÄʾ marbÅ«á¹a indicated only in the construct state. Modern terms, names, and organizations with commonly accepted forms are presented with their modern spellings. Place names are generally Anglicized (e.g., Baghdad, Gaza, Medina). Historic dynasties and groups appear with diacritics (e.g., Ê¿AbbÄsids, FÄá¹imids, IsmÄÊ¿Ä«lÄ«s), while more modern groups are Anglicized (e.g., Druzes, Ottomans).