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Antje Neumann

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Dar Hadith al Hassania

Abstracts of the Chapters

Chapter 1 provides an introduction to this book. It first establishes the main research question, several sub-questions, as well as the objective of this research. It further defines the scope, including definitions of the Antarctic and the Arctic region on which the study is based. In this context, it also points to limitations that had been necessary in order to make the research feasible. The chapter also explains the specific methodology used in this study. In this respect, its central components are the construction of a working approach towards defining the term ‘wilderness’ based on four major qualities, the creation of a working approach towards defining the term ‘tourism’ built on four criteria that can be identified as the most pressing issues in relation to the impact of tourism and non-governmental activities on the wilderness of Antarctica, and the selection of the three case studies from the Arctic region based on comparability and certain quality criteria. The chapter concludes with an outline of the main structure.

Chapter 2 deals in a general way with the wilderness concept. In this respect, it elaborates on central aspects of the concept, how it has evolved and developed over time, its constraints and critical implications. It also points out the relevance of the wilderness concept to the Polar Regions. Specifically, the chapter addresses the evolvement of early wilderness movements and first wilderness designations, both by outlining national as well as international processes and by providing specific examples from the Polar Regions. It also describes the development of wilderness protection law and policy at the national and the international levels. In terms of critical positions towards the wilderness concept, the chapter focuses on the criticism of the “exclusiveness”, mainly in form of the exclusion of indigenous and other local people from the land targeted for area protection and from traditional land use practices.

Chapter 3 elaborates on the protection of wilderness in the Antarctic. It first addresses main features of Antarctica’s wilderness, including related ideas and perceptions. It analyses the wilderness character of Antarctica and presents an overview of the development of tourism in the region. In a main part, the chapter describes how the relevant legal provisions have evolved under the Antarctic Treaty System, draws an outline of the present regulatory system – with a focus on the role of wilderness protection in the objective and general principles as well as in the context of area protection and Environmental Impact Assessment – and looks at the main challenges of wilderness protection in terms of Antarctic tourism. In respect of the latter, a specification is made towards the increasing number of tourists, the increasing number of touristic sites and frequency of visitation, the diversification of tourism activities, and the establishment of infrastructure for tourism purposes.

Chapters 4, 5 and 6 provide the Arctic case studies for this research, composed of the Hammastunturi Wilderness Reserve (Finland), the Svalbard archipelago (Norway) and the Denali National Park and Preserve (Alaska). Based on a comparable structure, they give an outline of the general characteristics relevant for wilderness, the history of human settlement in the area and the use of its natural resources, and the respective general legal framework. Similar to the Antarctic Chapter, the chapters also address ideas and perceptions of wilderness and analyse the wilderness qualities in relation to each of the area. Following this, the development of tourism is described in respect of each case study area while specific attention is drawn on regional and local particularities. The fourth section of the chapters is divided into two main parts: the first part deals with the protection of wilderness in the case study area under the relevant national and regional policies and the respective individual legal framework, and the second elaborates on the specific regulatory measures towards tourism activities. Here again, a focus is set on the increasing number of tourists, the increasing number of touristic sites and frequency of visitation, the diversification of tourism activities, and the establishment of infrastructure for tourism purposes.

Chapter 7, the final chapter of this book, intends to answer the overall research question “To what extent can the concept of protecting Antarctic wilderness constitute a basis for regulating tourism and other non-governmental activities in Antarctica, taking particular notice of experiences and ‘lessons learnt’ in other wilderness areas in the Arctic?”. It also provides a specific answer to question “What could the atcm learn from Arctic experiences?”. In doing so, it presents, among others, a catalogue of general and specific measures, gained from the Artic case study areas, that could be discussed in relation to Antarctica in order to further regulate tourism and other non-governmental activities. Moreover, it stresses the prerequisite most important for Antarctic decision-making towards explicit wilderness protection, namely the achievement of a commonly agreed approach towards the characteristics or qualities of wilderness. The chapter concludes with a set of questions and issues that require further research or that could be addressed in future.

Index

Absence of infrastructure (as a wilderness quality)

in Antarctica

94–101

in Denali

356–362

in Hammastunturi

206–209

213–215

in Svalbard

279–285

288–291

Act on Wilderness Reserves (Finland)

193–195

239–241

aeco see Association of Arctic Expedition Cruise Operators

Age of Enlightenment (and the wilderness concept)

38–39

Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora

126–130

149

Alaska

Alaska Bus Lines

366

Alaska Railroad

343

366–367

369

373

Alaska Range

339–340

369

Alaska Road Commission

342

353

Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act (anilca)

378

384–391

406

409

440–443

446

457

460

471

Alta River Dam (Norway)

Amundsen, Roald

Antarctic

Area protection

129–133

149–155

Climate zones

72–75

Flora and fauna

74–75

Wilderness

86–101

Wilderness protection in

123–183

Wilderness qualities

94–101

Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition (asoc)

102–103

108

117–118

139

144

167

173

175

422

Antarctic Specially Managed Areas (asmas)

153–155

430–431

444–445

466

Antarctic Specially Protected Areas (aspas)

149–155

430–431

444–446

466–467

Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (atcms)

26–27

81–83

103–104

120

123–144

145–163

164–183

413

421

444

450–451

462–472

Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties (atcps)

1–4

23–27

118–119

(133)

164–183

451

462–472

Antarctic Treaty

1–5

81–85

Antarctic Treaty System (ats)

81–85

Regulations on tourism and non-governmental activities

164–183

Wilderness protection

124–144

Antarctic World Park

49–50

138–140

428

Antarctica

Definition

Exploration of

76–81

86–89

Human presence and activities in

76–81

Tourism development in

101–118

Wilderness of

86–101

Arctic Circle

195

220

337

339

Arctic Council

68–69

474–475

Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy (aeps)

Arctic Human Development Report

Arctic indigenous peoples

66–70

Arctic region, definition

7–8

Area protection

in Antarctica

129–133

149–155

in Denali (as part of establishing legislation)

384–388

in Hammastunturi

242–244

in Polar Regions (analysis and comparison)

444–447

in Svalbard

312–315

asmas see Antarctic Specially Managed Areas

asoc see Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition

aspas see Antarctic Specially Protected Areas

Association of Arctic Expedition Cruise Operators (aeco)

307

324–326

454

475

atcms see Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings

atcps see Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties

Athabaskans

338

341

Banff National Park (Alberta, Canada)

Barentsz, Willem

261

264

275

Bern Convention

444

Birds Directive (European Union)

Burke, Edmund

Byrd, Richard Evelyn

100

caff see Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna Working Group

Carrying Capacity Concept (ccc)

Case study areas

28–32

Denali, Hammastunturi, Svalbard

cep see Committee for Environmental Protection under the Environmental Protocol to the Antarctic Treaty

cep Tourism Study

110

120–121

Church, Edwin

Circumpolar Protected Area Network (cpan)

474

Coal mining in Svalbard

265–267

288

291

309

333

471

Committee for Environmental Protection under the Environmental Protocol to the Antarctic Treaty (cep)

131

152

178

Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna Working Group (caff)

69–70

Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals

128

Convention on Biological Diversity

207

285

Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resources (cramra)

134–136

428

Cook, James

cpan see Circumpolar Protected Area Network

cramra see Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resources

Denali

Environmental Impact Assessment

392–397

General characteristics

337–340

General legal framework

343–350

Human settlement and resource use

340–343

Impact of tourism on wilderness

375–378

Management plans

378–379

Tourism development

363–375

Park Road

367–370

373–374

376

379

394

396

398–399

401

404–405

408

410

US National Environmental Policy Act

378

392–393

US National Park Service Organic Act

344

378–379

404

US Wilderness Act

343–350

385

Wilderness

350–362

Wilderness protection: National Park Service’s policy

379–382

Wilderness protection: legislation

384–397

Wilderness qualities

356–362

Denali Resource Stewardship Strategy

378

380–381

Diaz, Bartolomeu

Diversity of tourist activities

in Antarctica

110–116

in Denali

369–373

in Hammastunturi

223–227

in Polar Regions (analysis and comparison)

424–425

in Svalbard

298–301

Drake, Francis

Ecocriticism

Emerson, Ralph Waldo

Environmental and Social Management System (developed by iucn)

Environmental Impact Assessment (eia)

in Antarctica

156–164

in Denali

392–397

in Hammastunturi

245–248

in Polar Regions (analysis and comparison)

447–450

in Svalbard

315–321

Environmental Protocol to the Antarctic Treaty

General legal framework

81–86

136–144

Regulations on tourism and non-governmental activities

164–165

Wilderness protection

145–149

Erämaa (Finland)

196–197

201

Everyman’s Right (also All-Man-Right)

in Finland

200–201

251–253

259

in Norway

274

Fees (as management instruments)

in Denali

400–401

in Finland

224

in Polar Regions

463

467

469

Fishing

in Antarctica

78–81

in Denali

341

350

355

372

385

in Hammastunturi

188

192

196–197

199

201

207

223–226

232

252–253

259

in Svalbard

269

272–275

283

292

302

Forestry

in Hammastunturi

191

193–194

208

213

216

235

240

in Svalbard

272

Franklin River (Tasmania, Australia)

Friluftsliv (Norway)

273

Friluftsloven (Outdoor Recreation Act, Norway)

274

Gold digging or mining

in Denali

341–342

in Hammastunturi

189–191

193

213–215

223

227

232

Greenpeace

117

134

139

144

175

Guidelines on Wilderness in Natura 2000 (European Commission)

Habitats Directive (European Union)

185–186

210–211

236

244–246

248

416

434–435

446

448

Halonen, Pekka

197

Hammastunturi

Area protection

242–244

Environmental Impact Assessment

245–248

General characteristics

185–188

General legal framework

193–196

Human settlement and resource use

188–193

Impact of tourism on wilderness

229–233

Regulations on tourism and non-governmental activities

248–259

Tourism development

216–229

Wilderness

196–206

Wilderness Act (Finland)

193–196

239–241

Wilderness protection: Finnish policy

234–241

Wilderness protection: Legislation

239–241

Wilderness qualities

206–216

Heroic Age of Exploration

Hetch-Hetchy Valley Dam (California, United States)

Hunting

and wilderness

64–65

in Antarctica

124

in Denali

241

254

262

272

278

285

in Finland and Hammastunturi

188

192

196–197

199–201

203

205–207

213

217

219

223–224

232–233

in Norway and Svalbard

264–266

272–275

283

292–293

302

iaato see International Association of Antarctic Tour Operators

igy see International Geophysical Year

Indigenous and other local inhabitants of wilderness areas

63–66

Arctic indigenous peoples and Sami people

International Association of Antarctic Tour Operators (iaato)

103–116

124

163

165–166

170

173–175

179

182

424

469

475

International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling

124

International Geophysical Year (igy) (1957–1958)

International Union for Conservation of Nature (iucn)

58–59

65–66

139

144

152

206–209

242–244

414

470

Kuttura, Kuttura siida, Kuttura Road

234

246–248

257–258

Lake Pedder hydropower scheme (Tasmania, Australia)

Landseer, Edwin

Larsen, Anton Carl

Leopold, Aldo

198

Limits of Acceptable Change Concept (lac)

110

403

Lönnrot, Elias

198

Longyearbyen

267

288

291

294–297

301–303

305

309–311

316

332–333

422–425

437

Magellan, Ferdinand

Metsähallitus (Hammastunturi)

192

224–225

232

238

240

242

251–252

254–259

432

455

457

Mineral extraction in Antarctica, prohibition of

49–50

134–137

Mining activities

in Denali

341–342

in Hammastunturi

189–191

193

208

213–215

223

227

232

in Svalbard

265–267

269–270

280–281

288–289

291

309

in the course of industrialization

Mount McKinley

353

367

369

395

405

408

Mount McKinley National Park

337–338

365

386

439

Muir, John

40–41

350

Nash, Walter

138

352

354

National Park Service (nps) (Denali)

342

344

353

357–358

362

368

372

376

379–386

388–392

398–412

439–444

454–457

461

466

470

Natura 2000 Network

in Finland

185

208

210

236

244

246–247

434

Naturalness/natural intactness of areas (as a wilderness quality)

in Antarctica

98–99

119

122

130–131

147

150

155

172

179

in Denali

358

361

412

in Hammastunturi

195

219

245–246

259

in Svalbard

277–279

293

Non-governmental activities, scope

9–10

(see also tourism)

Nordenskiöld, Adolf Erik

198

nps see National Park Service (Denali)

Ottawa Declaration

474

Ortelius, Abraham

Perceptions of wilderness

in Antarctica

86–89

89–94

in Denali

352–356

in Finland

196–201

201–206

in Svalbard

271–275

275–279

Polar Regions

Wilderness protection approaches

414–443

Area protection

444–447

Environmental Impact Assessment

447–450

Regulations on tourism and non-governmental activities

in Antarctica

164–183

in Denali

397–412

in Hammastunturi

248–259

in Polar Regions (analysis and comparison)

450–465

in Svalbard

322–335

Reindeer herding see Sami, Reindeer herding

Romanticism (and the wilderness concept)

39–41

272

Saariselkä

185

221–223

226–228

248–250

425

Sami

Experiences with wilderness protection

67–68

Parliament

People

188–189

195

205–206

Perceptions of wilderness

204–206

Protection of culture and traditional practices/way of life

194–195

208

213

235

239–240

232–233

235

245

471

Reindeer herding (also husbandry)

188–189

191–193

195

204–206

207–208

211–215

216

225

232

254–257

Scott, Robert Falcon

Sites of tourist visits

in Antarctica

107–110

in Denali

367–369

in Hammastunturi

222–223

in Polar Regions

423

in Svalbard

297–298

Size of areas (as a wilderness quality)

in Antarctica

in Denali

357–358

361

in Hammastunturi

206–208

209

in Svalbard

281–284

285

Solitude (as a wilderness quality)

in Antarctica

99–101

in Denali

345

347

356–361

375–379

382

387

395–396

404–405

412

in Hammastunturi

198

202–203

207–209

215–216

231

233

259

in Svalbard

283–285

291–293

304–306

329

331

Sustainable Tourism Concept

21–22

Svalbard

Area protection

311–312

322

Environmental Impact Assessment

315–321

General characteristics

261–264

General legal framework

267–270

Human settlement and resource use

264–267

Impact of tourism on wilderness

304–306

Land-use planning

315–318

Regulations on tourism and non-governmental activities

322–335

Svalbard Environmental Protection Act (sepa)

311–313

315–323

330

333

Tourism development

293–306

Traffic regulations

307

310–311

320–323

329–332

334

Wilderness

271–293

Wilderness protection: Norwegian policy

308–310

Wilderness protection: Svalbard’s policy

310–311

Wilderness qualities

279–293

Svalbard Act

268–207

306–307

405

Svalbard Treaty

267–270

306–308

Taylor Valley Visitor Zone (Antarctica)

172

Thoreau, Henry David

Tongariro National Park (New Zealand)

Tourism

Forms

8–10

Impacts on wilderness

20–28

118–123

229–233

304–306

375–378

in Antarctica

80–81

101–118

in Denali

363–375

in Hammastunturi

216–229

in Polar Regions (analysis and comparison)

420–427

in Svalbard

293–304

Tourism regulations see Regulations on tourism and non-governmental activities

Tourism-related infrastructure

27–28

in Antarctica

116–118

in Denali

373–375

in Hammastunturi

227–229

in Polar Regions (analysis and comparison)

425–427

in Svalbard

301–303

Tourist numbers

26–27

in Antarctica

104–107

in Denali

365–367

in Hammastunturi

221–222

in Polar Regions (analysis and comparison)

420–421

in Svalbard

295–297

Treaty Concerning Spitsbergen see Svalbard Treaty

Transcendentalism (and the wilderness concept)

Doctrines of the ‘sublime’ and the ‘frontier’

40–42

Undevelopedness (as a wilderness quality)

General relevance

16–17

in Antarctica

127

147

150

155

169

172

in Denali

345

358

360–362

in Hammastunturi

241

258

in Svalbard

283

291

304

306

320

United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (undrip)

United Nations World Tourism Organization (unwto)

Values (in legal disciplines)

Inherent

45–46

Instrumental

45–46

55–57

Intrinsic

45–46

56–59

Villmark (Norway)

271

311–312

Wilderness

Meanings, perceptions and values

36–46

Objective approaches

15–17

of Antarctica

86–101

of Denali

350–362

of Hammastunturi

196–216

of Svalbard

271–293

Qualities

13–19

Subjective approaches

14–15

Working approach

17–19

98–101

209–216

285–293

361–362

Wilderness areas, qualities

Naturalness

16–19

415–417

Size

16–19

414–415

Solitude

14–15

17–20

419–420

Undevelopedness

16–17

417–419

Antarctica, Denali, Hammastunturi, Svalbard

Wilderness assessment approaches

in Antarctica

94–101

in Denali

356–362

in Hammastunturi

206–216

in Polar Regions (analysis and comparison)

414–420

in Svalbard

279–293

Wilderness concept

Criticism of

61–70

Downsides of

61–70

Historical development of

38–61

Meanings, perceptions and values of wilderness

36–46

Wilderness protection law and policy

55–61

Wilderness ideas

in Antarctica

86–89

in Finland

196–201

in Norway

271–275

Wilderness movements

46–50

Wilderness perceptions

Antarctica

89–94

Denali

352–356

Hammastunturi

201–206

Svalbard

275–279

Wilderness protection in Polar Regions (analysis and comparison)

443–465

Wilderness protection

First models

50–54

in Antarctica

123–183

in Denali

378–412

in Hammastunturi

233–259

in Svalbard

306–335

Law and policy in Antarctica

81–86

Indigenous and other local inhabitants

63–68

National Parks

51–54

Development of law and policy

55–61

Wilderness values in Polar Regions

45–46

William the Conqueror (William I of England)

World Charter for Nature

Yellowstone National Park

387

Zitierungsangaben

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Wilderness Protection in Polar Regions

Arctic Lessons Learnt for the Regulation and Management of Tourism in the Antarctic

Reihe: Studies in Polar Law, Band: 2

Cover Wilderness Protection in Polar Regions

ISBN:: 9789004416079

Verleger:: Brill | Nijhoff

Print-Publikationsdatum:: 03 Apr 2020

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Wilderness Protection in Polar Regions

Arctic Lessons Learnt for the Regulation and Management of Tourism in the Antarctic

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