Index
Academic Karelia Society
187–188, 194
Activists
143–146, 149, 155, 162, 181
and German intervention
151, 160
Agrarian development. See Agriculture
Agrarian Union
108–109, 118–128
and Lapua movement
192–196
in White Finland
161, 186–192
Agriculture
26, 29–34
commercialisation of
30, 40–47, 68, 230
Hungarian
223
revolution in
38–41
Albania
6, 202
Alexander I
20–24, 37, 103
Alexander II
30, 242
Allardt, Erik
250
Anderson, Perry
3, 7
Anticapitalism
101, 125, 193
Anti-communism
189–194
Aristocracy
24, 91, 229n
See also Nobility
Armed forces
107, 134–137, 139–140, 145, 176, 191
control of
132–134, 191
creation of
7–8, 37, 146
lack of
107, 150, 184
See also Civil Guard; Conscription; Militias; Police; Red Guards; Russian army; White army; Worker security guard
Austria-Hungary
6, 201, 223, 247, 249
collapse of
135, 201–202, 246–249
Autonomist nationalism
81–84, 91, 201
Balkan
227
in Baltic Provinces
202
Czech
221–222
Autonomy, Finnish
19–22, 24, 27–28, 36, 86, 103, 137, 144–145, 210, 220, 239
Aya, Rod
176–178, 182
Baldwin, Peter
256–257, 262n
Balkan states
8, 11n, 37, 202, 221, 227
nationalism in
83, 91n
See also Albania; Bulgaria; Romania; Yugoslavia
Baltic Provinces
4, 8, 9, 21–22, 100, 103, 117, 138, 226, 230–231, 234, 239
Germans in
84, 209–211, 213–214, 231, 233, 238–240, 258
national movement in
202–210, 245
revolution in
15, 106, 109, 153, 210–220, 247–249
See also Estland; Estonia; Kurland; Latvia; Livland
Bendix, Reinhard
95
Berend, Ivan T.
31, 81
Bessarabia
37, 239
Bianco, Lucien
154
Bjórgum, Jorunn
255, 262
Bohemia
4, 11n, 33n, 91n, 221
Bolsheviks
in Baltic Provinces
212, 215–220, 230, 231n
in Finland
152, 156, 181–182
in Hungary
224, 225–226
Russian
152–154, 156, 164, 173
See also Revolution, Russian: of 1917
Borodkin, L.I.
203n
Bourgeoisie
27, 30, 34–36, 141, 143, 150–151, 153, 155–157, 165, 188, 196, 237, 248, 251, 253
in Baltic Provinces
206, 208–209, 213–215, 220
and bureaucracy
35
Czech
221
and nationalism
82, 91
Bourgeois parties
108, 147, 155, 171, 187, 192, 195, 264
in Baltic Provinces
215–218
in government
138–139, 145, 153, 155, 190
Hungarian
224, 226
and Lapua movement
189–191
and Russians
105
Brenner, Robert
237–238
Bulgaria
6, 135, 202, 227, 228–230, 244, 246–247
worker movement in
228
Burghers
20, 35, 36, 53n, 90, 107, 205
Butter, export of
56, 65, 66, 70
Capitalism
28, 31–34, 39
agrarian
203, 213
and class structure
121, 192
in Finland
40, 101, 125, 192
and nationalism
84
world
28, 81, 81n, 163–164, 168
Castles, Francis G.
99, 254
Chinese revolution
3, 134, 154
Church
in Baltic Provinces
203n, 205, 206, 208, 211, 216–217
and Fennomania
87, 92
in Finland
26–27, 35, 58, 87, 95–96, 100, 122, 127, 186
national Protestant
4
and workers
189
See also Clergy
Civil Guard
162, 185, 187–188, 190–191, 259
Civil guards
107, 150, 156–157, 167, 189–192, 196–197, 265
Class. See Dominant classes; Middle class; Upper classes; Working class
Class conflict
74, 82, 117, 119, 121–122, 124–125, 166, 166n, 174, 180
Class integration
8, 12–13, 15, 94, 131, 179, 201
and territorial integration
118
and worker movement
136, 178, 244
Class structure
131, 135, 221, 237, 245
agrarian
8, 76, 237, 238
in Baltic Provinces
9, 11, 207, 209, 220
Finnish
11–15, 32, 49, 74, 79, 84, 119, 203, 210, 238, 240–241, 255, 257
and market
228, 230
and revolutions
136, 168–171, 245–246
Clergy
20, 25, 27, 27n, 36, 51
in Baltic Provinces
206
and nationalism
35
and peasantry
35, 88, 95, 121
and revivalism
87, 124
in White Finland
186
See also Church
Coalition party
186–188, 190–196, 196n
Coercion, means of
7, 37, 138, 140, 170–171, 175, 178, 220, 226, 252–254
See also Armed forces; Police
Collective action
131–132, 242, 250, 256
against landowners
9, 113, 164, 166
in latecomer states
1, 3, 9–12, 14, 116, 135, 177, 210, 231, 242, 245–246, 249
by peasants
46, 113, 123, 125, 135, 167
and political activity
8–10, 14, 94, 115, 174, 176, 188
and revolution
131, 165, 174, 216, 221, 223, 262, 265
See also Strikes; Trade unions; Worker movements
Collective farms
218
Colonial states
2, 136, 164, 168–170, 180, 201, 244–245, 249
Communist party
in Bulgaria
228
in Finland
119, 161, 180, 185, 190n
in Hungary
224–226
Communists, Finnish
and Lapua movement
188–192, 194, 196–197, 234, 259
in political system
187–188, 190, 196n, 250–251, 253
Congress of Vienna
6, 22
Conscription
22, 37, 104, 107, 138, 160, 166, 166n
Russian
37, 104
Constitution, Finnish
24, 142, 159, 161–162, 185, 188, 234, 242
Consumer cooperatives
102, 127
Core regions
8, 13–14, 19, 49–50, 54, 58–59, 63, 66, 72–76, 120–123, 125, 128, 157, 237, 247
Core states
248–249
Croats
33n, 229, 229n, 246
Crofters
43n, 44n, 46–48, 51, 110, 118, 121, 121n
as category of peasants
43–44, 186
and landowners
26, 41, 43, 45, 54, 74, 109, 207
political activity of
46–48, 70, 75, 102, 110–113, 116, 120–121, 125, 137, 162–166, 169–170, 172, 184, 213, 227
Culture
national
15, 85, 87, 89, 166, 171, 180
Swedish
35, 85, 88
Czech nationalism
221–222, 230–231, 244, 246
Czechoslovakia
6, 91n, 179n, 202, 221–222, 224, 232
Czech territory
221
Dairy farming
40–43, 68, 238
See also Butter, export of
Democracy
116, 137, 144, 162, 178, 180, 222, 226, 231, 243
Denmark
4, 241–244
Depression, Great
189, 193–194, 196–197, 232–234
Deutsch, Karl W.
80n, 83
Diet. See Parliament
Dominant classes
7, 82n, 133, 135, 232
and fascism
194–197, 231–235
in Finland
14, 134, 167, 171, 180–181, 194–197
and nationalism
80, 180
and revolutions
132–135, 180
See also Gentry
Dubofsky, Melvyn
248
Dunn, John
2
Eastern (East-Central) Europe
2, 6–13, 170, 236, 252, 255
economic development in
31–32, 38–40, 81, 91, 223, 237
fascism in
231–235
national movements in
81–86, 91n
political activity in
100–101, 111–112, 134–135, 177, 185–186, 201–233, 244–247, 249, 257
See also Balkan states; Baltic Provinces; and names of individual countries
Eastern Finland
51, 51n, 56
migration from
64–65
as periphery
63–66, 73–76
political parties in
124–125, 127–128, 167
Economic dependence
2, 238
on Western Europe
9, 11, 202, 232–234
Economic development
35, 39, 80, 87, 238–239, 241–242, 257
See also Capitalism
Education
79–80
in Balkans
228
in Baltic Provinces
100, 211, 214
Czech
221
in Finland
25–28, 33, 35, 84, 87, 114, 194, 241–242
in Nordic countries
242
Ehrnrooth, Jari
263, 264
Eight-hour workday
137, 141–143, 145, 153
Elections
Austrian
221
in Estonia
209, 215–218
in Finland
11, 94, 108–109, 123n, 145, 147, 159, 161, 187, 191, 193, 196n
and Finnish workers’ parties
108–109, 116–117, 121, 124, 137, 145, 147, 162, 167, 187, 213, 253
See also Parliament; Political parties; Social Democratic movement; Suffrage, universal
Emigration
38, 40, 123
to St. Petersburg
72
to Sweden
72
to United States
40, 70–72, 123
Estland
5, 20, 203–204, 206, 214–215
See also Baltic Provinces
Estonia
5, 6, 202, 202–207, 246
fascism in
234–235
national movement in
82, 91n, 203, 208–209, 211, 240, 246
revolution in; workers’ movement in
176, 209–220, 230–231, 236
Ethnicity
239
and class
9, 239
and nationalism
6, 9–10, 80–81, 83, 227, 231
Exports
31, 31–33, 42, 50
Ezergailis, Andrew
215
Farming. See Agriculture; Dairy farming; Forestry; Peasants
Fascism
in Eastern Europe
194–195, 202, 231–235
in Finland
189–197, 253, 256, 259–260
Fennomania
85–93, 185, 207
and Social Democratic party
102
Fennomans
100, 104, 258
and nationalism
86–90, 99
See also Finnish party
Ferro, Marc
133
Feudalism
7, 8, 39, 54, 82, 84, 91, 100, 112, 122, 203, 205, 210, 213, 220
Finland
autonomy of
19–28, 36, 103, 137, 144–145, 239–241, 252
constitution of
24, 89, 92, 103–105, 137, 159, 161–162, 185, 185n, 188, 234, 241–242
as dependent state
2–8, 11, 28, 32–34, 83–90, 145–146
as grand duchy
22–23, 29n, 55–56, 85, 144, 237, 240, 252
regions of
49–56, 63–76, 167–168
as successor state
6, 11, 235
See also Parliament; Revolution, Finnish; Swedish domination of Finland; Worker movements, Finnish; and names of specific regions, cities, classes, and political parties
Finnish language
86, 90, 93
and gentry
86–88, 91, 93, 247, 258–259
and peasantry
87, 88
Finnish party (Old Finns)
90, 104–105, 108–109, 118–124, 126–127
See also Fennomans
Fire brigades
96, 102, 111, 111n
Food shortage
148–151, 173–175, 251
Forestry. See also Sawmill industry; Timber
France
6, 10, 22, 82n, 250
revolution in
133–134, 180n
unions in
115
Frank, André Gunder
237
Gellner, Ernest
79, 80, 82
Gentry
25–28, 34n, 35, 92, 99
and agriculture
35, 55, 91
language of
35, 86, 88–89, 91
and peasants
35, 42, 51, 95
Russian
134
Germans
in Baltic Provinces
202n, 205–208, 215
in Czech lands
231
Germany
10, 103, 154, 161, 219, 225, 249, 263n
fascism in
195–197, 233
and Finnish revolution
143–144, 146, 155–156, 160–161
Finnish troops in
144, 156, 160
and Social Democrats
117
Ginsburgs, George
261
Grain
confiscation of
142–143, 149
exported
70, 237, 238
imported
33, 34n, 68, 138, 142, 149
prices of
193
rationing of
141–142, 149, 150
trade of
55, 228
See also Food shortage
Greece
202, 227, 228
Gulf of Bothnia
19, 50, 54–55, 59, 73n, 74
Gulf of Finland
19, 20, 21, 50, 59
Haapala, Pertti
264, 265, 266
Habsburg Empire
221, 229, 236, 247
collapse of
202, 227
Hämeenlinna
59, 68
Hechter, Michael
65, 80, 122, 123n, 126
Heckscher, Eli F.
49
Helsinki
23, 43, 46, 50, 58, 86
guards in
146–155
population of
55n, 58, 67–68
railways for
59–60, 68, 72
and revolution
157–160
university in
22–23
Hobsbawm, E.J.
24, 80
Hroch, Miroslav
82–83, 85–86, 86n, 91, 208
Hungarian Soviet Republic
225
Hungary
4, 6, 134, 202, 259
agriculture in
39, 223
fascism in
231, 233
independence of
91n, 223, 224
revolution in
15, 154, 161, 176, 202, 223, 225–227, 229, 236, 247–248
IKL. See People’s Patriotic Movement
Imperial Russia. See Russia; Russian Empire
Industry
26, 29–34, 38–39, 44–46, 54, 59, 61–68, 72–74, 76, 110, 197, 238
See also Forestry; Timber; Working class: industrial
Inflation
138, 173
Intellectuals
81
in Baltic Provinces
208–209, 212–213
and Fennomania
87, 92, 98, 166
Hungarian
223
and nationalism
171, 180
radical
133, 134, 180, 180n, 213
and Social Democratic movement
112, 134, 154, 162, 170, 180
and Whites
166
Iron
29, 45, 63
exported
33n, 56
Italy
10, 109, 194, 196, 233, 250
Jörberg, Lennart
41
Jutikkala, Eino
118, 255n
Kainuu region
73
Kajaani
73, 74
Karelianism
90
Karvonen, Lauri
255, 256n, 259
Kautsky, Karl
102, 117
Kekkonen, Jukka
263, 264, 265n
Kianto, Ilmari
183, 213
Kirby, David
255, 262
Kivisto, Peter
255, 256n, 258, 259
Klinge, Matti
258
Kollontay, Alexandra
98
Koval’chenko, I.D.
203n
Kühnl, Reinhard
195
Kuhnle, Stein
241, 242
Kurland
203–204, 205n, 215
See also Baltic Provinces
Kuusinen, O.W.
147, 154n, 159, 170n, 176
Labour
agricultural
4, 39, 164
cultural division of
80, 85
international division of
31, 34
migration of
30, 38–41, 64–66
regional division of
49–76
subordination of
92, 223
See also Peasants; Trade unions; Worker movements; Working class
Labour movement. See Social Democratic movement; Worker movements
Laestadionism
126, 127
Land, redistribution of
164–166, 211–212, 216–217, 228–229, 232
Landowners and leaseholders
46–48, 74–76, 109, 163–166, 207
Landownership
20, 63–64, 84, 120–121, 128, 202–203, 210
by peasants
11n, 20, 32–33, 40–45, 66, 74
See also Peasant landowners
Land reform
40, 186, 229, 232, 232n
Language
and nationalism
83–93
and political parties
88–90
See also Finnish language; Gentry: language of; Swedish language
Lapland
51n, 55, 126
Lapua movement
189–197, 234, 253, 256, 260
Latecomer states
8, 79–80, 134, 177, 236, 242
collective action in
6, 10, 135
Eastern European
9, 15, 81, 135, 231, 242, 247, 249
Latvia
6, 246
fascism in
234
nationalism in
91n, 202–210
revolution in
210–220, 230–231, 236, 246
Lenin, V.I.
132, 153, 154n, 212, 217, 230
Liberals
87, 89–90, 92–93, 104, 120, 124, 178, 258
Liikanen, Ilkka
260, 261, 264, 265, 266
Linna, Väinö
184
Lithuania
6, 82, 84, 91n, 202, 234, 246
revolution in
202n, 236, 247
Livland
5, 20, 203, 204, 206, 214, 215
See also Baltic Provinces
Lönnrot, Elias
87
Lutheran religion
22, 26, 205
See also Church; Clergy
Luxemburg, Rosa
222
Mannerheim, C.G.E.
156, 161–162, 180n, 191–192
Manninen, Ohto
166n
Mäntsälä revolt
191, 197
Market. See Capitalism
Martin, William C.
114
Marxism
209
Middle class
41, 88, 90, 96, 108, 221, 232–233
in Baltic Provinces
206–208, 213–214
and nationalism
79, 82–85, 92, 245
and Whites
166, 192–196
Migdal, Joel S.
112
Migration, internal
45, 56n, 63–66, 68–70, 72, 74
See also Emigration
Military. See Armed forces
Militias
107, 139–140, 142–143, 146–148, 148n, 151, 167–212
See also Worker militias
Minorities, national
6, 30, 134, 239
Mobilisation, popular
81–82, 132, 134–136, 241–244
See also Collective action
Modernisation
and nationalism
79–80
Moore, Barrington
1, 3, 4, 5, 10, 91, 120, 121, 123, 133, 135, 159n, 166n, 171, 172, 195, 204, 206, 250, 251
Moravia
221
Multiple sovereignty
132, 140, 144, 146, 150, 171, 175
Nairn, Tom
81–82, 85n
Napoleonic Wars
6, 242–243, 252
National Coalition party
186
and Lapua movement
186–196
National integration
8, 13–15, 79, 95, 118, 133–136, 179–180, 185, 196, 201, 207–208, 219, 240
and class structure
91, 186, 207, 210
and fascism
189, 194
and political parties
127, 193
and worker movement
97, 100, 117, 134, 186, 244, 263
Nationalism
9, 28, 230–231
in Baltic Provinces
202–210
as civic religion
14, 80, 82, 84–85, 99, 180, 185, 207, 244
Finnish
79–93, 99–100, 144, 202–203, 240–241
Swedish
89–90
See also Autonomist nationalism
Nationalists. See Fennomans; Nationalism
National Progress party
120, 186, 187, 194
Nicholas I
240
Nobility
20, 24–25, 35n, 36, 82, 203, 205, 221, 237
See also Aristocracy; Dominant classes; Gentry
Northern Finland
51
as periphery
51, 73–74, 76
political parties in
120, 125–126
Norway
4, 5, 11, 83, 86n, 241–243
Noske, Gustav
225
Old Finns. See Finnish party
Orridge, Andrew W.
83, 84n, 91n
Ostrobothnia
50–58, 70–75, 192–193
political parties in
120, 122–124
Whites in
144, 146, 158, 167–168
Ottoman Empire
6, 201–202, 227–229, 236
Oulu
50, 51, 55n, 64, 65, 72, 73–74
Paasikivi, J.K.
114, 240n
Paavolainen, Jaakko
255n
Paper industry
31, 33–34, 45
Parikka, Raimo
262, 263, 264
Parliament (Diet)
24–27, 30, 35, 103–104, 141, 144–146, 155–156, 158–159, 190–191
composition of
20, 22, 107–109, 137, 187, 189–191
convening of
26, 30, 35, 43, 57, 95, 137, 152–153
dissolution of
145–146, 150
Estonian
215–216, 218
Peasant landowners
13–14, 19–20, 26–27, 32–36, 40–45, 54–56, 68–71, 108, 123–124, 187, 193, 202–203, 237–238, 247
in Baltic Provinces
205–208, 233–234
Estonian
214
and nationalism
14, 85–93, 99, 121–122
and revivalism
95–96, 99
and workers
40–48
Peasants
9, 35–36, 163–166
in Baltic Provinces
212–213, 217–218, 220, 228–231, 239
in Eastern Europe
111–112, 245
in Hungary
223, 226
and Lapua movement
191–194, 197
and revolution
135, 163–166, 177, 230
in Romania
228
in White army
166
See also Peasant landowners
People’s Patriotic Movement
187, 190, 194, 259
Periphery
19, 63–66, 75–76, 125, 248–249
industrialization of
31, 72
nationalism in
83, 84
Peter the Great
20, 22, 205
Petrograd. See Russia
Poland
4, 6, 33n, 202, 205n, 222, 238, 239, 247
Congress
23, 37, 239
fascism in
233
nationalism in
37
Police
95, 106, 138, 139, 146, 159, 162, 263
absence of
107, 133, 138–140, 142–143, 184, 190
Estonian
216
Political dependence
1–2, 24–25, 80–81, 201, 245
Balkan
227–228
in Baltic Provinces
230, 208–209
in Finland
10–13, 83–85, 88–89, 236–237, 241–242, 246–247
in Hungary
223
in Poland
222
See also Autonomist nationalism
Political parties
Finnish
14, 100–101, 118–128, 241
Western European
4, 231–232
See also Agrarian Union; Communist party; Communists, Finnish; Finnish party; National Coalition party; National Progress party; People’s Patriotic Movement; Social Democratic movement; Swedish [People’s] party; Young Finnish party
Population growth
9, 36, 38, 40, 44, 65, 76, 113, 123, 164, 231
Proletariat. See Working class
Provisional Government
in Baltic Provinces
215, 220
in Finland
137, 144–146, 151, 171, 253
See also Russian domination
Railways
30, 48n, 56, 58–60, 64, 68, 72, 74, 112, 123
Ránki, György
31, 81
Rasila, Viljo
173
Red government
158–160
Red Guards
107, 155, 157, 158, 163, 173, 175, 184, 264, 266
Religion
4, 22, 83, 89, 95, 96, 121–122, 125
and Lapua movement
192, 260
and revolution
168
See also Church
Repression
10, 82, 219
colonial
245
and revolutions
142, 159, 164, 183, 212, 247
Reval
206, 208, 209, 211, 216
Revivalism
95, 99, 124–127, 167–168, 193
and church
87, 96, 100, 124
Revolution
131–136
anti-colonial
2, 227, 244
in Baltic Provinces
210–220, 230–231
in Latvia
246
See also Revolution, Finnish; Revolution, Russian
Revolution, Finnish
10–11, 12, 152–160, 226, 246–249, 252–254
as civil war
173–174, 179–183
goals of
158–159
and working class
162–166
Revolution, Russian
of
1905 106, 114, 212
of
1917 133–134, 153, 179–180, 219–220, 216–217
Riga
206, 211, 215, 220
Robinson, G.T.
212
Rokkan, Stein
4, 38
Romania
6, 39, 134, 224, 225, 228, 230, 232n
fascism in
233
independence of
202, 227, 244, 246
peasant unrest in
9, 229
and World War I
135, 228–229, 247
Russia
Bolshevik
153
trade with
31–34, 56–58, 238–239
See also Revolution, Russian; Russian army; Russian domination; Russian Empire
Russian army
24, 135, 214
in Finland
138, 145, 146, 151–152, 158
Russian domination
of Baltic Provinces
206–217
of Finland
13–14, 19–28, 83–84, 103–107, 116–117, 171–174, 179–180, 236–239
Russian Empire
6, 20–22, 103, 104, 206, 239
collapse of
14, 131, 168, 171, 201–202, 219, 227, 236, 249
Saimaa Canal
56, 60
St. Petersburg
14, 20, 21, 23, 29, 49, 59, 66, 84, 103, 106, 122, 210
migration to
55–56, 58–59, 68, 72
Salkola, Marja-Leena
147n
Sawmill industry
31–33, 35n, 36, 45–46, 59, 63, 65–66, 68, 70, 73–74
Scandinavia
4–5, 14, 21, 40, 196, 236, 256
social structure of
11, 13, 32, 35, 197, 241, 244, 247, 255
worker movement in
14, 94, 99, 116, 137, 178, 241–244, 247
Schools
29, 87–88
elementary
88, 96, 111
in Estonia
217
See also Education
Scott, James C.
183n
Selleck, Roberta
26, 28, 92
Serbia
135, 202, 224, 227–229, 247
Seton-Watson, Hugh
83
Ship-building
54, 70–73
Shorter, Edward
115
Siironen, Miika
259
Sillanpää, F.E.
182, 183, 184n
Skocpol, Theda
3, 112, 135, 168
Slovaks
82, 202n, 225, 230, 246
Slovenes
229, 246
Smith, A.D.
81n
Snellman, J.V.
86–87, 134
Social Democratic movement
241
in Balkans
228
in Baltic Provinces
208–213, 218–220
and crofters
164–166
Czech
222–223
and elections
11–12, 108–109, 146–152, 161–162
in Finland
13–15, 94–117, 220, 222, 246–249
in Finnish government
131–132, 149–151, 161, 170, 175, 188, 197
and Finnish independence
144–145, 147, 152
and Finnish revolution
148, 153–155, 157–160, 170–178
and Lapua movement
189–192, 197
membership of
96–97, 140–141
Polish
222–223
Russian
209–210, 211
and strikes
106–107, 114, 141, 153, 188
support for
11–14, 38, 109–114, 118–120, 227
in Sweden
242–243
and wars
249
Socialism. See Social Democratic movement
Social structure. See Class structure
Soikkanen, Hannu
42, 98n
South-western Finland
51–53, 66–70, 74–75, 120–122, 193
Stamboliski, Alexander
228
Stenius, Henrik
255
Stephens, John D.
254
Stockholm
49–50, 56–58, 123
Stock-raising
30, 32, 40, 68
Strike, right to
94–95, 100–101
Strikes
97–101, 114–116, 141, 188–189
in Baltic Provinces
211–212
farm
141, 143, 167
general
106–107, 112, 117, 125, 152–155, 175–176
Successor states
1, 6, 11, 202, 223, 231, 235, 252
Suffrage, universal
in Austria
221
in Denmark
243–244
in Estonia
211, 215
in Finland
10, 11, 94, 101–107, 244
in Hungary
223
in Norway
243
in Romania
229
in Sweden
242–243
Svinhufvud, P.E.
161–162, 190–192, 197, 234
Sweden
5–6, 99–100, 241–243
agriculture in
39–40, 47
trade with
70
Swedish domination of Finland
13, 19–22, 24, 49–55, 123, 202–203, 238–239
Swedish language
104, 188, 202–203
and Finnish gentry
14, 19, 24–25, 35, 83–93, 181n, 210, 240, 247
regions of
51–54, 89, 120, 126
Swedish [People’s] party
90, 104, 108, 109, 120, 187, 195, 241
Tampere
45, 46n, 97, 148, 155, 160, 177, 178n
Tar
54–55, 65, 70
Tarrow, Sidney
72
Temperance movement
88, 96–97, 100–102, 111, 127
Tenant farmers
20, 43, 44, 121n, 137, 159, 166
in Baltic Provinces
203, 205, 211
See also Crofters
Territorial integration
58–62, 74–76, 118–119
Thaden, Edward C.
19, 239, 258
Third World countries
2, 112, 164, 170
Thompson, E.P.
10
Tilly, Charles
5, 7, 9, 10, 92n, 98, 107, 115, 119, 131–133, 171, 172, 176, 250–251, 253, 254
Timber
41–44, 63–74, 126, 238–239
See also Forestry; Sawmill industry
Trade
26, 29, 50–51
with Russia
33–34, 55–56
with Sweden
29, 54
Trade unions
94–102, 114–116, 140–141, 148, 151, 188, 212
Hungarian
223–224
and Lapua movement
189–191, 196–197
and strikes
141, 155
in Sweden
243–244
Western European
94–95, 231
See also Social Democratic movement; Strikes; Worker movements
Treaty of Hamina
22
Treaty of Versailles
6
Treaty of Westphalia
6
Trotsky, Leon
132
Turku
20, 50, 51, 55n, 58, 64–65, 68, 148, 149
Unemployment
138, 140, 143, 150, 173, 251
in Balkans
228
University
22, 26–27, 36, 58, 87–88, 180
students
82, 167, 187–188
Untola, Algot
167n
Upper classes
83–93, 104
agrarian
66–70, 121–122
culture of
35–36
in Eastern Europe
201, 230–231, 232–233
and nationalism
14, 84–93
and trade unions
98–100
and Whites
166
See also Dominant classes; Gentry; Peasant landowners
Upton, Anthony F.
142, 255, 258, 259
Vaasa, county of
51, 64, 65, 72, 124, 158, 161
Venstre
241, 243
Viipuri
23, 36n, 50–70, 75–76, 120, 122, 128
Wages
196–197, 211, 216, 223
Wallerstein, Immanuel
3, 237, 249n
Weber, Max
7, 25, 37, 173
Western Europe
82
economic dependence on
9, 11, 202, 232–239
trade unions in
94–95, 100
working classes in
231
White army
160, 166, 193
Whites
156–160, 179, 181, 190–191, 235, 259–260
regions under
158, 167
Wiik, K.H.
154n
Williams, Colin H.
83, 84n, 91n
Wolf, Eric
109, 113, 163–164, 177, 211, 251
Wood products
31, 34, 45–46
See also Forestry; Sawmill industry; Timber
Worker militias
139–143, 147–148, 151, 167
and strikes
142
and food shortage
143
See also Red Guards; Worker security guard
Worker movements
9–11, 247–248
in Eastern Europe
229–231
and Russian revolution
137
spread of
112–113, 163
See also Social Democratic movement; Worker movements, Finnish
Worker movements, Finnish
14–15, 94–102, 143–145, 148, 188–189
nationalism of
244, 246–247
and political action
14, 104–107, 114–116
and revolution
131, 176–179, 227, 249
See also Social Democratic movement
Worker security guard
148–149, 151–158, 162–163, 167, 173, 175, 177, 220
See also Red Guards
Workers’ halls
113, 116, 189
Working class
38–48, 186, 235
agricultural
36, 39–46, 48, 70, 74–75, 110–111, 167
in Balkans
228
in Baltic Provinces
203–217
Czech
221–222
in Eastern Europe
232
Hungarian
223
industrial
39–40, 45–46, 61–63, 74–75, 98, 115, 220, 223, 228
in Latvia
223
mobilisation of
93, 110
and revolution
162–167
and Social Democratic movement
112–113, 118–120
in Sweden
243
and unions
114–115
in Western Europe
231
World War I
2, 6, 11, 14, 170, 172, 201, 233, 246–249
in Balkans
228
in Baltic Provinces
214
in Hungary
229
and revolutions
131–136, 236
and worker movement
221
World War II
190, 249, 251, 263n
Young Estonia movement
214
Young Finnish party
93, 104–105, 108–109, 118, 120, 124–125, 186
Yugoslavia
6, 202, 229