Illustrations
Figures
- 1The auxiliary verb-main verb scale (adapted from Quirk et al. 1985, 137) 8
- 2Strong deontic modality as a linguistic variable 10
- 3Kachru’s Model of the Three Concentric Circles (adapted from Crystal 1997, 54) 56
- 4The status of HKE, IndE, and SgE in Kachru’s (1985) Model of the Three Concentric Circles (adapted from Crystal 1997, 54) 58
- 5Main aspects of Schneider’s (2007) Dynamic Model 60
- 6Number of speakers aged 5 and above by usual language/dialect (Hong Kong Census of Population 1991, Census and Statistics Department) 68
- 7Language attitudes towards IndE 73
- 8Ten most frequently spoken mother tongues in India (India Census of Population 1991, Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs) 74
- 9The regional distribution of India’s scheduled languages (from the 19th edition of Ethnologue, used by permission) 75
- 10Resident population aged 5 years and above by language most frequently spoken at home (Singapore Census of Population 1990, Singapore Department of Statistics) 80
- 11Mufwene’s Feature Pool Model (from Mufwene 2001, 6) 82
- 12The position of HKE, IndE, and SgE in the 1990s in Schneider’s (2007) Dynamic Model 89
- 13The spoken and written components of ICE-GB, ICE-USA, ICE-HK, ICE-IND, and ICE-SIN on the continuum between conversation and academic prose 98
- 14Corpus balance with regard to the social dimension age in the spoken section of ICE-HK 108
- 15Representativeness of spoken ICE-HK with regard to the social dimension age as measured against data from the 1991 Census 109
- 16Corpus balance with regard to the social dimension gender in the spoken section of ICE-HK 110
- 17Representativeness of spoken ICE-HK with regard to the social dimension gender as measured against data from the 1991 Census (only people aged 20 or above) 111
- 18Corpus balance with regard to the social dimension age in the spoken section of ICE-IND* 111
- 19Representativeness of spoken ICE-IND* with regard to the social dimension age as measured against data from the 1991 Census 112
- 20Corpus balance with regard to the social dimension gender in the spoken section of ICE-IND* 113
- 21Representativeness of spoken ICE-IND* with regard to the social dimension gender as measured against data from the 1991 Census (only people aged 18 or above) 113
- 22Corpus balance with regard to the social dimension mother tongue in the spoken section of ICE-IND* 115
- 23The 12 ICE registers according to Factor 1 based on several ICE corpora (from Xiao 2009, 436, © 2009 The Author(s). Journal compilation © 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.) 133
- 24The 12 ICE registers according to Factor 1 in different ICE corpora (from Xiao 2009, 442, © 2009 The Author(s). Journal compilation © 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.) 133
- 25Modal and semi-modal verbs of obligation and necessity in ICE-GB, ICE-USA*, ICE-HK, ICE-IND*, and ICE-SIN, normalised frequency per 100,000 words 144
- 26Modal and semi-modal verbs of obligation and necessity and their senses in ICE-GB, ICE-USA*, ICE-HK, ICE-IND*, and ICE-SIN, normalised frequency per 100,000 words 146
- 27Modal and semi-modal verbs of obligation and necessity and their senses in the spoken section of ICE-GB, ICE-USA*, ICE-HK, ICE-IND*, and ICE-SIN, normalised frequency per 100,000 words 147
- 28The patterning of the spoken corpora with regard to the frequency of epistemic must 148
- 29The proportion of epistemic must in ICE-USA s*, ICE-GB s, ICE-IND s*, ICE-HK s, and ICE-SIN s, excluding unclear cases 149
- 30Modal and semi-modal verbs of obligation and necessity and their senses in the written sections of ICE-GB, ICE-USA*, ICE-HK, ICE-IND*, and ICE-SIN, normalised frequency per 100,000 words 151
- 31The Feature Pool Model (adapted from Biewer 2015, 114) 159
- 32The historical state of the modal domain of obligation and necessity in the input variety BrE 194
- 33Development of must in its root and epistemic meaning between 1600 and 1999 in ARCHER, normalised frequency per 100,000 words 196
- 34Development of must in its root and epistemic meaning between 1750–1799 and 1850–1899 in ARCHER, normalised frequency per 100,000 words 197
- 35The rise of have to in ARCHER, normalised frequency per 100,000 words 199
- 36Feature 76A Overlap between situational and epistemic modal marking adapted from WALS online (map: Wikimedia Commons, Petr Dlouhý, CC-PDM, changed to black and white, added circles and key) 206
- 37Root and epistemic meanings of must in the spoken section of ICE-IND* according to language family 211
- 38Root and epistemic meanings of must in the spoken section of ICE-IND* according to L1 212
- 39Encoding of root (dark grey) and epistemic senses (light grey) in English and the substrate languages of IndE, HKE, and SgE 215
- 40The distribution of must vs. have to according to mode (spoken vs. written) in ICE-SIN 220
- 41 The distribution of must vs. have to in the spoken part of ICE-GB and ICE-SIN 221
- 42Mapping of form and function by Kannada L1 speakers compared to Mandarin L1 speakers 233
- 43Correlation between indirectness and politeness in ‘Anglo’ varieties of English (adapted from Leech 1983, 108) 245
- 44Independent vs. interdependent construal of self (adapted from Markus & Kitayama 1991, 226) 247
- 45Personality characteristics associated with must in the sentence You must help me out with this! 251
- 46The frequency of must, have to, have got to, and need to in apparent time in the spoken section of ICE-HK 272
- 47 The frequency of root must and epistemic must in apparent time in the spoken section of ICE-HK 273
- 48Modal and semi-modal verbs expressing deontic modality in apparent time in the spoken section of ICE-HK 274
- 49 The frequency of have to in apparent time in the spoken section of ICE-HK according to gender 275
- 50The development of the proportions of the variants of the variable deontic modality in the spoken section of ICE-HK 277
- 51The frequency of must, have to, have got to, and need to in apparent time in the spoken section of ICE-IND* 278
- 52The frequency of root must and epistemic must in apparent time in the spoken section of ICE-IND* 280
- 53The proportion of root must and epistemic must in apparent time in the spoken section of ICE-GB 281
- 54Modal and semi-modal verbs expressing deontic modality in apparent time in the spoken section of ICE-IND* 281
- 55The frequency of have to in apparent time in the spoken section of ICE-IND* according to gender 283
- 56The development of the proportions of the variants of the variable deontic modality in the spoken section of ICE-IND* 283
- 57The development of the proportions of the variants of the variable deontic modality in the spoken section of ICE-GB 284
- 58Visualisation of the log odds for must to compare the use of must and have to in spoken HKE, IndE, and BrE 291
- 59Visualisation of the log odds for must in all varieties 296
- 60A six-stage model of gender relations in linguistic change from below (adapted from Labov 2001, 309) 302
Tables
- 1Auxiliary verbs vs. lexical verbs (from Huddleston & Pullum 2002, 93, my emphases) 6
- 2The common design of the ICE corpora (source: http://ice-corpora.net/ice/design.htm, last access: 19/02/2018) 93
- 3Example of a mismatch of information in the text data and metadata in ICE-IND 102
- 4Example of inconsistent use of speaker ID in text file in ICE-IND 103
- 5Comparison of the distribution of mother tongues in ICE-IND* and the 1991 Census data 116
- 6Top-level labels in the UCREL Semantic Analysis System (from Archer, Wilson & Rayson 2002, 2) 128
- 7Classification of ICE categories according to formality (adapted from Fuchs & Gut 2015, 378) 131
- 8The grammaticalisation of must 163
- 9The grammaticalisation of have to (adapted and extended on the basis of Heine 1993, 42) 168
- 10The grammaticalisation of have got to in comparison to the grammaticalisation of have to 179
- 11The grammaticalisation of need to 186
- 12Classification of text types according to log odds for must and formality 299
- 13Number of speakers aged 5 and over by usual language/dialect (Hong Kong Census of Population 1991, Census and Statistics Department) 347
- 14Language attitudes towards IndE 347
- 15Ten most frequently spoken mother tongues in India (India Census of Population 1991, Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs) 348
- 16Resident population aged 5 years and above by language most frequently spoken at home (Singapore Census of Population 1990, Singapore Department of Statistics) 348
- 17Representativeness of spoken ICE-HK with regard to the social dimension age as measured against data from the 1991 Census 349
- 18Representativeness of spoken ICE-HK with regard to the social dimension gender as measured against data from the 1991 Census (only people aged 20 or above) 349
- 19Representativeness of spoken ICE-IND* with regard to the social dimension age as measured against data from the 1991 Census 349
- 20Representativeness of spoken ICE-IND* with regard to the social dimension gender as measured against data from the 1991 Census (only people aged 18 or above) 350
- 21Corpus balance with regard to the social dimension mother tongue in the spoken section of ICE-IND* 350
- 22UCREL Semantic Analysis System (USAS) tagset 361
- 23Modal and semi-modal verbs of obligation and necessity in ICE-GB, ICE-USA*, ICE-HK, ICE-IND*, and ICE-SIN, normalised frequency per 100,000 words 365
- 24Modal and semi-modal verbs of obligation and necessity and their senses in ICE-GB, ICE-USA*, ICE-HK, ICE-IND*, and ICE-SIN, normalised frequency per 100,000 words 365
- 25Modal and semi-modal verbs of obligation and necessity and their senses in the spoken section of ICE-GB, ICE-USA*, ICE-HK, ICE-IND*, and ICE-SIN, normalised frequency per 100,000 words 366
- 26Modal and semi-modal verbs of obligation and necessity and their senses in the written sections of ICE-GB, ICE-USA*, ICE-HK, ICE-IND*, and ICE-SIN, normalised frequency per 100,000 words 367
- 27Development of must in its root and epistemic meaning between 1600 and 1999 in ARCHER, normalised frequency per 100,000 words 368
- 28Development of must in its root and epistemic meaning between 1750–1799 and 1850–1899 in ARCHER, normalised frequency per 100,000 words 368
- 29The rise of have to in ARCHER, normalised frequency per 100,000 words 368
- 30Personality characteristics associated with must in the sentence You must help me out with this! 369
- 31The frequency of must, have to, have got to, and need to in apparent time in the spoken section of ICE-HK, normalised frequency per 100,000 words 370
- 32The frequency of root must and epistemic must in apparent time in the spoken section of ICE-HK, normalised frequency per 100,000 words 370
- 33Modal and semi-modal verbs expressing deontic modality in apparent time in the spoken section of ICE-HK 370
- 34The frequency of have to in apparent time in the spoken section of ICE-HK according to gender, normalised frequency per 100,000 words 371
- 35The development of the proportions of the variants of the variable deontic modality in the spoken section of ICE-HK 371
- 36The frequency of must, have to, have got to, and need to in apparent time in the spoken section of ICE-IND*, normalised frequency per 100,000 words 371
- 37The frequency of root must and epistemic must in apparent time in the spoken section of ICE-IND*, normalised frequency per 100,000 words 372
- 38The proportion of root must and epistemic must in apparent time in the spoken section of ICE-GB 372
- 39Modal and semi-modal verbs expressing deontic modality in apparent time in the spoken section of ICE-IND*, normalised frequency per 100,000 words 372
- 40The frequency of have to in apparent time in the spoken section of ICE-IND* according to gender, normalised frequency per 100,000 words 372
- 41The development of the proportions of the variants of the variable deontic modality in the spoken section of ICE-IND* 373
- 42The development of the proportions of the variants of the variable deontic modality in the spoken section of ICE-GB 373
- 43Visualisation of the log odds for must to compare the use of must and have to in spoken HKE, IndE, and BrE 374
- 44Visualisation of the log odds for must in all varieties 376