The ancient principle of lex orandi, lex credendi, reminds us of the centrality of prayer to the formation of faith. Liturgical practice is a theologizing practice, wherein the words and actions included in the liturgy both express and craft theology. This includes songs and music: the singing practice of a church forms its faith in fundamental ways. Roberta King has underlined the importance of song in African Christianity by shifting the maxim to lex canendi, lex credendi,1 a shift that also rings true in pentecostal settings across the globe. Hence, the faith of the church—orthopistis—can be ‘read’ from its worship—orthodoxa.
In this investigation of worship in Mavuno and Woodley, the time has come for a closer look at theology or, more specifically, the doctrinal aspects of their sung corpus.2 For, although it can indeed be argued that theology and spirituality are inseparable in Pentecostalism, and that theology is more than doctrine—as I did in Chapter 2—it is nevertheless also doctrine. As a whole, this case study places worship in a concrete liturgical, theological, and cultural context and probes experiential, ritual, and embodied aspects along with doctrinal ones. However, my aim in this particular chapter is to explore lyrics, making a careful exegesis of songs used for worship in the two case churches. Through a close reading of texts and an analysis of names, titles, verbs, and pronoun use, as well as deciphering biblical references, patterns of what is believed to be true about God are uncovered (specifics on the methods used can be found in Chapter 3). The focus of this chapter is thus theology in a more classic sense, the sense of explicit belief. Following Archer and Saliers, I have chosen to call this orthopistis (right believing) to separate it from orthodoxa (right worship).3
The fundamental question addressed in the rest of this chapter is: On the basis of song content, what do these churches believe? The chapter has two main parts, reflecting the main theological themes that came out of the analysis: the Bible as the Word of God re-oralized into song, and Christology as the centre of the pentecostal view of God. In a theological sense, both have to do with revelation: the written and living Word of God expressed in concrete form through communal liturgical practice.
1 What Does the Bible Sing? Singing the Scriptures
In Sub-Saharan African cultures, call-and-response is a pervasive pattern of democratic participation. In ‘call-and-response’ drumming and singing, a leader plays or sings a phrase or line of music, known as a ‘call’. The rest of the group, the chorus, answers back by playing or singing another phrase or line of music, and this is known as the ‘response’. … Call-and-response is the characteristic epistemological mode of an African universe in which everything is interconnected.6
Call-and-response is more than a musical practice, it speaks to a larger picture of the way people understand their world and interact with each other. It has to do with epistemology and ontology as much as music. To Clarke, this pattern becomes a metaphor for a “theological method”7 wherein the authoritative sources of theology interact with the way people respond to and interpret these sources.
Connecting his model of call-and-response to pentecostal distinctives, Clarke utilizes the key text in Acts chapter 2 to highlight the importance of sound, sight, and speech to pentecostal theologizing processes. The ‘call’ of the Holy Spirit on the Day of Pentecost was an audible, visible, and verbal one, to which the disciples gave audible, visible, and verbal response. In a similar manner, modern-day Pentecostals in Africa experience the call of the Holy Spirit in concrete and embodied ways, responding with sound, sight, and speech.8
Explaining the background of the ‘call’ within an African traditional context as usually “initiated by an authoritative source,” such as the king or chief, and warranting a response from “the wider community,”9 he identifies three distinct calls (sources) of theology, as well as a number of ways in which African Pentecostals respond to these through participatory and experiential spirituality (songs, dance, prayer, testimony, healing, etc.); these are: the Bible, African church history, and the African religio-cultural context.10 Ultimately, their authority comes from the Holy Spirit. Consequently, “in the context of this quest for an African theological method,” Clarke defines “call-and-response as an ongoing dialectic between the Holy Spirit (the call) and the existential experience of the African people (the response).”11
Paul Gifford argues in a similar vein when he discusses the use of the Bible in African neo-pentecostal churches, saying that the participants in these churches “would presume the Bible is inerrant, but in what it promises for me, not in what it claims about history or science.”21 The historical question “simply
Although I find Gifford’s suggestion that Pentecostals view the Bible as a contemporary document is a bit too restricted (it is, rather, regarded as both a historical and a contemporary one),26 I think that his observation on the declarative/performative use of the Bible is very helpful. I have heard that way of preaching many times in Kenya and elsewhere and, as we will see below, it also has a bearing on the local understanding of worship.
Firstly, Scripture is connected to God’s historical self-disclosure or revelation. Secondly, Scripture as text is re-oralized through preaching, singing, prayers, and narrative in such a way that it participates in the oral universe of the African purview. Thirdly, Scripture is heard in the vernacular and, therefore, participates in the universe of African imagination, oral tradition and oral history.31
We may note how Clarke emphasizes both the historical and the contemporary sides of pentecostal views of the Bible, as well as the connection with orality, African culture, and vernacular languages. Through the rituals, the biblical text is ‘re-oralized’ in such a way that it becomes part of the African pentecostal universe. We may also note how he connects the Bible to God’s self-disclosure, explaining the theological basis of biblical authority as rooted in special revelation. When Pentecostals sing songs based on Scripture, they re-oralize the Word of God—ultimately, in some small way, reflecting God’s self-revelation in their own context.
The connection between songs, the Bible, and theology is, of course, not unique to Pentecostals; it occurs in different manners in all Christian traditions. Speaking of the African church in general, Roberta King says that the Bible “serves as foundation and source of African Christian songs, a workplace of theology.”32 Through a dynamic interaction with Scripture, in utilizing oral musical patterns Christian songs provide Africans with an important tool for
I find it illuminating to think of a re-oralization of Scripture, since much of the biblical text was oral in nature from the beginning. This is true of the narratives but even more so of the songs. The Bible is full of songs, and songs sung in pentecostal churches constantly echo biblical texts, especially biblical songs. The question, ‘What does the Bible sing?’ thus becomes as relevant as the more common, ‘What does the Bible say?’ Another way of posing the question guiding the analysis in this section is to ask, ‘In what way do songs in Woodley and Mavuno re-oralize biblical ways of singing?’—but that is far too complicated for a heading.
In what follows, I illustrate the relationship between songs, Scripture, and theology, using several different approaches. First, I examine local understandings of the relationship, then I look at how two specific biblical texts (songs) reoccur in lyrics, and lastly, provide an analysis of the sung corpus in terms of its functional likeness to the Psalter. Throughout the chapter, I have included references to relevant passages from the Bible to further underline the connection.
1.1 Emic Voices on the Bible in Worship
1.1.1 Spreading Kingdom Propaganda
You, you said something that when you mentioned that you’re a theologian, um, something that we do, some of us don’t even know that we do it, but we, with our music and our song selection we actually teach doctrine because we know a lot of the people who come here are not churched so they don’t know certain things about God—the stuff that we take for granted. So, we are very deliberate.… Um, and it’s not something that’s new, um, like our forefathers in the faith have done it time and time again, where they [pause]. Like, it’s a deep theological truth, but they might not read the book about it, so let's put it into a song so that we can get it [chuckles]. Yeah.34
The conversation continues in the group, with others noting the importance of art for communication in general and that in all cultures, art contributes to communicating cultural or political messages. Someone gives the example of World War ii, saying that the Nazi politicians could not state clearly to people what they were up to; instead, they put their ideologies into songs and music. Likening war in the civil realm to war in the spiritual realm, they ponder the role of music in spiritual warfare. Half-jokingly someone says about the music team, “We are spreading propaganda. Kingdom propaganda.”35 Some of the others in the group chuckle at his choice of words, but seem to agree. People learn where they belong, and who they are in Christ, through songs. At the same time, music can also bring “relief and comfort” in times of war, one of the other team members says. In situations where “there is no harmony, song is the one way that people, you know, bring harmony back.”36 She asks rhetorically: in the battle where “the kingdom of darkness” is “fighting the kingdom of God … how do we address this case?” and answers her own question, “It is through a song.”37 Music can help win the battle. It builds community and identity, communicates faith and brings harmony back.
1.1.2 We Sing the Word of God
- F90:So, it’s a powerful thing, yeah, because you can’t just go around saying “I'm on top of the devil,” as in [pause] that will manifest.
- F91:Yeah, that will manifest in your life.
- F92:Whether you mean it or not.
- F90:Whether you mean it or not. And so, um, one that is a catchy song and people will sing it—whether they understand it or not, it is already meaningful, like it’s already sunk somewhere in your life, it will manifest.
- F94:I love what you're saying, because what we sing, we sing the Word of God.
- F93:Yeah, and there’s no way the Word of God will go forth and not accomplish something.
The group: Mmm.
- F93:Yeah.
- F94:It will not come back in vain.39
To these worship leaders, singing is a ‘powerful thing’, precisely because they ‘sing the Word of God’. If people sing that they are ‘on top of the Devil’, then this will have concrete bearing on their lives. In some way or the other ‘it will manifest’. They do not merely learn something; rather, they and their circumstances are transformed via biblically informed music. This is motivated by reference to a quote from Isaiah 55:11 in which God says,
Scripture is thought to manifest itself—that is, become real—through its own power, regardless of human understanding. The Word is never preached (or sung) in vain, it always achieves its own purpose. Similar sentiments were also shared by the Woodley worship team, who said that the songs are “from the
This seems to suggest that songs have a performative function in the sense of the speech act theory discussed by Gifford. When words are ‘spoken’—or rather sung—in the ritual context, they accomplish what they say. It is not just pentecostal preaching that uses the Bible in this declarative or performative manner, songs do likewise. Music does not merely teach people who they are in Christ, but it proclaims them so. As people sing that they are “a chosen generation,”42 (for example), they become just that. This does not happen haphazardly, or with any type of song: the prophetic power of music is connected to a specific understanding of the Bible. From a pentecostal perspective, it is a matter of the spiritual power of the text, whereby the Word of God is ‘alive and active’ and accomplishing God’s purposes in the lives of worshippers. Thus, authority is transferred from the biblical text to songs, so that they borrow the transformative and creative capacity of Scripture.
The worship teams of both churches are convinced that their songs are ‘taken from the Word’, but are they right? Do the lyrics contain stanzas from the Bible? Do they really ‘sing the Word of God’? Borrowing the concept from Clarke, do pentecostal worship songs ‘re-oralize’ biblical texts? If so, in what way? To me it is obvious that songs used for worship in both Mavuno and Woodley have a very clear connection with Scripture. As I demonstrate in the exploration below, I think it is fair to say that the Bible is actually sung in these congregations. This does not mean that the whole biblical corpus is represented in song, nor that all songs are ‘biblical’ in a normative sense, that is, in line with the total biblical message (whichever way that is interpreted). What it does mean is that references to the Bible are present in almost every song in some way or other: through direct quotes, as well as through biblical motifs and a “biblicized style.”43 This close connection to the Bible also manifests itself through the structure and function of worship songs, a theme to which we return below. First, however, I show how two biblical stories recur in contemporary songs and function as theological motivations for sensory, kinetic, and embodied forms of worship.
1.2 Tabernacle and Throne: How Selected Passages Recur in Song
In their exploration of the historical development of contemporary worship, Swee Hong Lim and Lester Ruth highlight how important Scripture has been at
Similar ideas were aired by interviewees in Mavuno and Woodley. When leaders described why worship through music is important to them and why it is part of the church liturgy, they often referred to the Psalter and to the two related biblical images of tabernacle and throne. Singing and making music in church is like coming before God in the tabernacle, just like in the Old Testament, or at his throne, just like in the Book of Revelation. With the same logic, the present-day worship ministry is similar to the biblical ministry of priests, Levites, elders, and angels; in fact, it is a way to participate in that same ministry.47 The focus on biblical worship models spills over into lyrics, so that many songs in their respective repertoires draw on these passages or contain verbatim quotes from biblical songs or prayers. Some specific pericopes recur in several different songs, and some songs allude to several pericopes with similar themes.
In what follows, I discuss two selected biblical texts and show how they appear in the lyrics of five different songs, demonstrating how the two related images of tabernacle and throne recur in songs and act as motivations for kinetic-oral-embodied forms of worship.
1.2.1 First Chronicles Chapters 15 and 16
This Bible passage narrates the events surrounding King David’s restoration of the Ark of God to Jerusalem from the house of Obed-Edom the Gittite where it had been ever since a previous, failed, attempt to move it back from Kiriath Jearim.48 This time, King David had prepared a place for the ark, a tent, and he had made sure that the priests and Levites had consecrated themselves for
The song that is described as being sung when the ark was restored, 1 Chron. 16:8–36, appears in different manners in two of the songs sung in Woodley, The Lord is Good by Patrick Nakaya, and Haiye by Kaberia & the Klan.55
Comparison between 1 Chron. 16:9–34 (selected verses), The Lord is Good and Haiye
1 Chronicles 16, niv |
The Lord is Gooda |
Haiyeb (translation) |
Haiyec (original) |
|---|---|---|---|
9 Sing to him, sing praise to him; tell of all his wonderful acts. |
Sing aloud and declare His wonderful deeds, Shouting aloud His wonderful praises, |
I will sing to the Lord, for He is good. |
Nitamwimbia Bwana, kwani yeye ni mwema. |
12 Remember the wonders he has done, his miracles, and the judgments he pronounced, |
Have your soul not forget His wonderful deeds, |
||
23 Sing to the Lord, all the earth; proclaim his salvation day after day. |
Yahweh, Yahweh, the earth praises him, Haiye! |
Yahweh, Yahweh, Dunia inamshangilia, Haiye. |
|
24 Declare his glory among the nations, his marvelous deeds among all peoples. |
Give thanks to the Lord, He alone does mighty deeds. |
||
25 For great is the Lord and most worthy of praise;he is to be feared above all gods. |
Give thanks to the Lord above all other gods. |
||
27 Splendor and majesty are before him; strength and joy are in his dwelling place. |
Awesome glory, mighty wonder. |
||
34 Give thanks to the Lord, for he is good; his love endures forever. |
Give thanks to the Lord, for He is good, His love endures forever. Give thanks to the Lord, for His love will never fail, His love endures forever. The Lord is good, He is very good, He’s very good, He’s good to me. |
He is good, He is good, He is good, He is good, |
Yeye ni mwema, Yeye ni mwema, |
The following text, inviting us into heaven, again paints a vivid picture of sound, sight, and sensation.
1.2.2 Revelation Chapters 4 and 5
At once I was in the Spirit, and there before me was a throne in heaven with someone sitting on it. And the one who sat there had the appearance of jasper and ruby. A rainbow that shone like an emerald encircled the throne. Surrounding the throne were twenty-four other thrones, and seated on them were twenty-four elders. They were dressed in white and had crowns of gold on their heads. From the throne came flashes of lightning, rumblings and peals of thunder. In front of the throne, seven lamps were blazing. These are the seven spirits of God. Also in front of the throne there was what looked like a sea of glass, clear as crystal. In the center, around the throne, were four living creatures, and they were covered with eyes, in front and in back. The first living creature was like a lion, the second was like an ox, the third had a face like a man, the fourth was like a flying eagle. Each of the four living creatures had six wings and was covered with eyes all around, even under its wings. Day and night they never stop saying:
“Holy, holy, holy,
is the Lord God Almighty,
who was, and is, and is to come.”57
And the elders fell down to worship the one on the throne, casting their crowns before him, paying him tribute. Then suddenly, something new happened. The Apostle saw a scroll with seven seals on it, and heard the voice of an angel calling out for someone worthy to open them. This made the Apostle weep at first, because no one seemed able to open the scroll. Then one of the elders reassured him that there was indeed someone who was worthy; the Lion of the tribe of Juda, the Root of David, the one who had triumphed. Then, the Apostle “saw a Lamb, looking as if it had been slain, standing at the center of the throne,
This scene, including the heavenly songs that Revelation 4–5 describe, have inspired countless Christian songs, not least contemporary worship songs. The sung corpus of Woodley and Mavuno offers a few examples, including the global worship hit Worthy is the Lamb by Darlene Zschech, Hallelujah, by Israel Houghton, and Unastahili, a Swahili chorus picked up by Kaberia & the Klan. They each draw on different parts of the biblical passage, which the following chart in Table 9 illustrates.
Comparison between Rev. 4–5 (selected verses), Worthy is the Lamb, Hallelujah and Unastahili/You are Worthy
Rev. 4–5, niv (selected verses) |
Worthy is the Lamba |
Hallelujahb |
You are Worthyc (translation) |
Unastahilid (original) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
4:9 Whenever the living creatures give glory, honor and thanks to him who sits on the throne and who lives for ever and ever, |
||||
10 the twenty-four elders fall down before him who sits on the throne and worship him who lives for ever and ever. They lay their crowns before the throne and say: |
Crown You now with many crowns, You reign victorious. |
|||
11 “You are worthy, our Lord and God, to receive glory and honor and power, for you created all things, and by your will they were |
Hallelujah, Your name be praised in all the earth. Hallelujah, Let every voice declare Your worth. |
You are worthy, You are worthy, You are worthy, Lord. To receive glory, honor, and power. You are worthy, Lord. |
Unastahili, Unastahili, unastahili, Bwana. Kupokea utukufu heshima na uweza, Unastahili, Bwana. |
|
| created and have their being.” | It is you [who] are worthy, It is you [who] are worthy, Lord. |
Ni wewe wastahili,Ni wewe wastahili, Bwana. | ||
5:9 And they sang a new song, saying: “You are worthy to take the scroll and to open its seals, because you were slain, and with your blood you purchased for God persons from every tribe and language and people and nation. |
Thank you for the cross, Lord, Thank you for the price You paid, Bearing all my sin and shame, In love You came and gave amazing grace. Thank you for this love, Lord, Thank you for the nail pierced hands. Washed me in Your cleansing flow, Now all I know, Your forgiveness and embrace. |
|||
10 You have made them to be a kingdom and priests to serve our God, and they will reign on the earth.” |
Let our worship rise to You, Jesus. Let the fragrance please Your Heart. Pure in spirit and in truth, Jesus Hear our passion hear our cry Set apart and called Your own, Jesus Hear our passion hear our cry |
|||
12 In a loud voice they were saying: “Worthy is the Lamb,who was slain, to receive power and wealth and wisdom and strength and honor and glory and praise!” |
Worthy is the Lamb, Seated on the throne, Crown You now with many crowns, You reign victorious, Worthy is the Lamb, Worthy is the Lamb, Worthy is the Lamb, Worthy is the Lamb, |
Shout to the King of Glory, Jesus. Worthy, so worthy You are. |
You are worthy, You are worthy, You are worthy, Lord |
Unastahili Unastahili, Unastahili, Bwana |
13 Then I heard every creature in heaven and on earth and under the earth and on the sea, and all that is in them, saying: “To him who sits on the throne and to the Lamb be praise and honor and glory and power, for ever and ever!” |
To receive glory, honor, and power, You are worthy, Lord |
Kupokea utukufu heshima na uweza, Unastahili, Bwana |
||
14 The four living creatures said, “Amen,” and the elders fell down and worshiped. |
Humbly we approach Your throne, Jesus. To behold Your holiness Hallelujah, hallelujah, hallelujah, Amen. |
While Worthy is the Lamb focuses on Jesus Christ, his identity as the Lamb, his death on a cross, and his elevation to reign victoriously, the Hallelujah song focuses more on the priestly ministry of God’s people, their status as set apart and holy and their worship as a sacrifice before him. The Swahili chorus is less elaborated in terms of text, but concentrates on quoting parts of the heavenly worship verbatim. All three songs express the passage’s central message of proclaiming God/Christ as worthy and places contemporary worshippers alongside heavenly creatures in front of God’s throne.
To me, the examples in Tables 8 and 9 of how lyrics ‘re-oralize’ biblical texts, indicate at least two things: (1) the writers are well-versed in Scripture and rely heavily on biblical material; (2) they make their own selection based on theological convictions and appropriateness to the present-day context. Biblical texts are not included in songs haphazardly but according to certain ideals of worship and with the aim of fostering those same ideals in the congregation. Thus, text and context interact to form theological convictions in a communal setting, and worship becomes a theologizing practice, expressing and crafting theology at the same time.
The same goes for the process of including certain songs and not others in the liturgy. ‘Biblically sounding’ songs are certainly favoured in Mavuno and Woodley: that is, songs that have a biblicized style, belong to a genre that resembles the biblical songs, or have lyrics that echo important passages. Not any and every part of Scripture is re-oralized in songs used for worship, but those that are, are in line with the general theology and understanding of worship. To say that ‘we sing the Word of God’, is a somewhat modified truth, for it is always a matter of selection and appropriation; nevertheless, if one misses
In the above sections, I have demonstrated how the two related images of tabernacle and throne recur in songs, while in the next section, I highlight the relationship between the sung corpora and the Psalter. The process instigated above is thus reversed; now I start in the songs and move to the text, rather than the other way around.
1.3 A Psalter-Inspired Typology of Worship Songs
1.3.1 A Form-Functional Typology Inspired by the Psalter
For this study, I collected a total of 90 songs used for worship in Woodley and Mavuno, forming them tentatively into two sung corpora, as explained in Chapter 3. Instead of categorizing songs in my analysis based on their musical style or origins, I decided to build a typology on the content of the lyrics and the liturgical function of songs. In this regard, I was inspired by the so-called “form criticism”60 in Old Testament studies, especially that concerned with the Book of Psalms. Form criticism, first developed by German scholar Herman Gunkel, is a method of literary analysis that “groups the psalms by genre, and sometimes by content.”61 The main categories identified by Gunkel are “individual and communal laments, songs of thanksgiving, royal psalms and hymns.”62 Later scholars have developed this idea of categorizing the psalms according to form and content, among them Tremper Longman, who identifies seven basic genres: the hymn, the lament, the thanksgiving psalm, psalms of confidence, psalms of remembrance, wisdom psalms, and kingship psalms.63
In what follows, I provide extensive examples of categories that have a counterpart in the Psalter, since my point is to highlight this link between charismatic worship and the Psalter (as also discussed by several other scholars),66 while describing the rest of the categories somewhat more briefly. The point here is less the categorization itself (there are always many different ways to organize data), but the connection with biblical texts and literary structures. I have called this a ‘form-functional typology’, since it is not, strictly speaking, a formal, literary analysis according to all the standards of form criticism; rather it focuses on a combination of form (content-genre) and function (what it ‘does’ within the liturgy). At the end of this section, a table presents the sum of each type in the respective corpora. As in the Old Testament, there is considerable overlap between the types,67 and many songs belong to more than one category.
1.3.2
One might be inclined to think that songs of worship are all ‘God-oriented’, since the whole point of worship is to worship God, and in a general sense they are (i.e., dealing with Christian faith rather than arbitrary topics); yet, in a more specific sense, many are just as focused on the God-human interaction, or the community, as on God himself. The entire focus of songs in this group, however, is on the non-human side of worship: on giving God honour for who he is (‘doxology’), thanking him for his goodness (‘thanksgiving’), and declaring his Kingship and power (‘proclamation’). In terms of pronouns, songs in this group can take several different formats. Those singing (the worshippers) speak in the singular or plural first person (‘I’/‘we’), and either address their song to God (‘You’) or speak about God (‘Him’) to others (‘you’/‘they’). Irrespective of pronominal usage, they say very little about the inner thoughts, feelings, or life-experiences of the worshipper and are not as ‘personal’ as the interaction-oriented categories. The songs in this group have a distinctively positive air to them, often combined with music that makes you want to dance or cheer (what Poloma refers to as “Ionian music”).68 Ritually, they are most often utilized in the first part of the rite of worship and praise: the ‘outer courts’ of the tabernacle model.
1.3.2.1 Doxology
This category includes songs that give praise to God—what Longman and others call ‘hymns’—and it is the most characteristic genre both in the Psalter69 and in my data. The songs focus on God, giving him adoration and honour for who he is. Every praise, by Hezekiah Walker, from the Mavuno corpus is an example of this category:
Other typical examples include the Latin phrase, “Gloria in excelsis, Deo!”71 from the hymn, Angels we have heard on high, sung as part of the Alternative Christmas service in Mavuno, and the catchy gospel classic In the sanctuary, from the Woodley corpus.
That doxology is a major genre in both churches is not surprising; after all, the whole concept of ‘worship’ in a pentecostal-charismatic setting, as discussed throughout this book, builds on the idea that God is honoured by the (sung) praises of his people. As I see it, this is a direct echo of biblical ideas of worship and music, something also underlined by the many Bible references in songs. The Gloria is a quote from the Christmas story, where angels sing, “Glory to God in the highest heaven,”73 while the Kurt Carr song above includes a reference to Psalm 134:
Yet doxology is not the sole form taken by songs in Woodley and Mavuno. Worship includes many more aspects than ‘just’ adoration, including thanksgiving and proclamation among many others—categories to which we now turn.
1.3.2.2
Songs of praise and songs of thanksgiving are closely related.75 Simply put, the former focus on who God is and the latter on what he has done, thanking him for his great deeds and goodness. Often songs include both elements, exemplified by The Lord is good by Patrick Nakaya, from the Woodley corpus.
This song alludes to the Old Testament liturgy, where varieties of the refrain “Give thanks to the Lord, for He is good; His love endures forever,”77 occur in a number of texts both in the Psalter and elsewhere.78 Another example is the soft ballad, Thank you, Lord by Don Moen, from the Mavuno corpus, where the refrain simply repeats “Thank you, Lord, I just want to thank you Lord.”79 These are all songs in which an echo of Psalm 9 can be heard, “I will give thanks to you, Lord, with all my heart; I will tell of all your wonderful deeds.”80
1.3.2.3 Proclamation
Proclamation is a major feature of African pentecostal ritual use of the Bible, especially in the faith gospel sector, as we saw above,81 and something that is
In pentecostal theology, the sovereignty of God has consequences for the life of believers since it affects the spiritual battle around them. They can live in victory because of being on God’s side. The bridge says,
There is a declarative, assertive tone in the song as a whole that proclaims ‘Our God’ as ‘greater’, ‘stronger’, and ‘higher’ than any other and the believer as unstoppable together with him. The lyrics reminds us of Psalm 135:5: “I know that the Lord is great, that our Lord is greater than all gods,”87 as well as
1.3.3 Interaction-oriented Songs
While the songs discussed above say much about God, and only reveal the situation or thoughts of the worshipper indirectly, the next group of categories does the opposite. Here the interaction between the worshipper and God takes centre stage. Through song, worshippers express themselves before God: speaking of their hardships (‘lament’), hopes for the future (‘confidence’), need for God’s intervention (‘invocation’), and their heart’s desire (‘personal prayer’). Last in this group come the songs that focus on the here and now, what happens during the rite of worship: worshippers giving themselves to God (‘sacrifice’) and God mediating himself to his people (‘sacrament’). Most songs in this category speak in the first person, either singular (‘I’/‘me’) or plural (‘we’/‘us’), and so have a ‘personal’ feeling to them, as if speaking straight from the heart to God, or ‘personally’ about him. Songs in this group are often combined with mellow and soft music (which Poloma refers to as “Lydian music”),89 and used in the mid or latter parts of the rite of worship and praise, (the ‘inner courts’ or ‘Holy of Holies’ according to the tabernacle model). Compared to the God-oriented songs, those that are interaction-oriented bring the worshipper and God into closer contact. If songs in the former group tend to depict God as transcendent, this group makes him highly immanent.
1.3.3.1 Lament
While the doxologies and the thanksgivings have a distinctly positive air to them, celebrating who God is and what he has done, the laments instead breathe of sorrow and distress, while the testimony songs (see below) occupy a middle space, displaying joy at what God has done and yet often also describing hardships and trouble. In the Psalter, many laments, while expressing the problems of life—which may stem from both internal and external sources (‘enemies’)90—still include elements of joy when the solution to those problems comes in the form of God’s aid and salvation. These are features that also occur in Mavuno and Woodley, especially in Swahili songs. A few lines from the
Nimetafuta kwote, for quite a long time. Fundi wa kunitosheleza. Shida sio viti wala meza, Ila nina mahitaji ya kindani. Nitaenda wapi wangu mwili ukizorota, Swali najiuliza. So, nahitaji fundi wa roho yangu, atakayejenga nafsi yangua |
I have searched everywhere, for quite a long time. [For] a carpenter that would suffice for me. The problem is not the chairs or tables, But I have inner needs. Where will I go when my body is unable, The question I ask. So, I need the Carpenter of my soul, Who will build my soul [/self/spirit]b |
In the above song, the pain and sorrow of the worshipper comes through vividly. His problem is not material needs, such as ‘chairs and tables’, but a matter of ‘inner needs’. Therefore, he turns to the Carpenter who can mend his soul and make him whole again. We may note in passing the innovative use of the title ‘Carpenter’ to refer to Jesus. Pain also comes through in another Swahili song from the Mavuno corpus, Nibebe, by Rose Muhando, that tells of persecution and betrayal, even by close friends and loved ones. One of the verses says,
E Mungu, angalia kunena kwangu, Na usikie sauti ya kilio change. Moyo wangu umechoka sana, Baba. Kwa ajili ya wingi wa mateso yangu, Nafsi yangu imegandamana na mavumbi. Niokoe mikononi mwa midomo ya mbwa. Kwa nini ninateswa sana kwa ajili yako, Babangu? Niokoe mikononi mwa watu wabaya, Fanya hima unisaidie nibebe.a |
O God, pay attention to what I am saying And listen to the sound of my cry. My heart is very weary, Father. Because of the multitude of my troubles, My soul is frozen to dust. Save me from the paws and mouths of dogs. Why am I being persecuted because of you, oh my Father? Save me from the hands of evil people, Hasten and save me and carry me.b |
Although songs of lament far from dominate the Mavuno and Woodley corpus, they are still present, and constitute an important balance for other more confident and positive sounding songs, like those in the next category.
1.3.3.2 Confidence
If the laments look at present trouble, and the testimony songs look back at what God has done in life, the confidence songs focus on the future, declaring the worshipper’s hope and trust in God’s help over the coming days. Unlike the laments, these songs often have a confident, almost triumphalist tone to them. They speak of a God who takes care of us, no matter what happens in life. In the Psalter, Psalms of Confidence often use “striking metaphors of God as a compassionate refuge,”92 such as a shepherd or a mother bird. Somewhat similar to what we find in this hymn from the Woodley corpus, Leaning on the everlasting arms:
Pamoja na wewe pamoja na wewe, katika safari yangu nitatembea na wewe. Pamoja na wewe, pamoja na wewe, katika safari yangu, nitatembea na wewe. Bwana uu sehemu yangu, rafiki yangu wewe, katika safari yangu, Nitatembea na wewe. Niongoze safarini mbele, unichukue mlangoni mwa mbinguni, Nitatembea na wewe.a |
Together with you, together with you, On my journey I will walk with you. Together with you, together with you, On my journey I will walk with you. Lord you are my portion, you are my friend, On my journey, I will walk with you. Lead me on the journey ahead, take me towards the door of heaven, I will walk with you.b |
In this song the worshipper is ‘walking’ on a journey in company with the Lord. God is a reliable friend who guides and leads him all the way to heaven. We may recall the discussion in Chapter 6 about taking steps of faith, and learning how to do it via dance and rhythm. In Chapter 8 I return to this song once again, discussing worship as a way of life. Further, God is said to be the ‘portion’ of the worshipper, a reference to the system of inheritance in the Old Testament in which the priests and Levites did not get their own land; rather, the Lord promises to be their “portion,”94 thereby providing assurance for the future. Similar expressions are found in the Psalter, for example in Psalm 16: “Lord, you alone are my portion and my cup; you make my lot secure.” “You make known to me the path of life; you will fill me with joy in your presence.”95
1.3.3.3
Songs in this category are prayers that have a searching and almost desperate tone to them, calling on God to come and intervene with his presence, help or power. Nibebe, mentioned above, says in the refrain: “Nibebe, nibebe, nibebe, nibebe” (Carry me, carry me, carry me, carry me); “Nibembeleze, nibebe” (Comfort me, carry me).96 Other examples include I need thee every hour,97 and Wewe watosha, (You are sufficient),98 both speaking of the desperate need for God in the life of the worshipper.
1.3.3.4 Personal Prayer
The same three songs could also be mentioned in the category of personal prayers—songs that seem to express the inner heart of the worshipper, speaking directly to God as a close friend or loved one. The Christmas hymn, Away in a manger, and sung in both churches, is from one perspective a thematic song, but at the same time a personal prayer saying, “Be near me, Lord Jesus; I ask Thee to stay, close by me forever and love me, I pray.”99 The Lord is immediately present for the worshipper, as close as a parent by the bedside.
The two final interaction-oriented categories have a different kind of immediacy to them. They speak of the here-and-now interaction with God, but not in the sense of interaction with God in life generally, but in the sense of interacting with God through music at this point in time. These categories have a ritual urgency to them in that they imply that the rite of worship is actually a situation where offerings are made and sacraments given. This sacramentality is important for understanding the role of worship in pentecostal spirituality, and is discussed further in the last chapter.
1.3.3.5 Sacrifice
Some songs present themselves as offerings to God. They speak of singing or worshipping as a form of sacrifice, clearly referencing the Old Testament temple liturgy, but replacing the burnt offerings with songs and music. This is also a common theme in the Psalter.100 The most obvious example is We bring
1.3.3.6 Sacrament
Closely related to songs of sacrifice are songs of sacrament, the distinction here being that the first category of songs speaks of the worshipper giving something to God, while in the latter, God is the one who gives. In this category I have included songs that speak of God’s immediate presence, nearness, or gifts in the worship situation. One way to see this is that songs of sacrament and sacrifice together make up the category that in some circles is defined as ‘worship’ (as opposed to ‘praise’), the intimate singing that often takes place at the end of the rite of worship and praise (in ‘the Holy of Holies’).103 Some songs combine the two themes, like the song Take over104 by Tye Tribett, while most seem to focus on either/or, like I come expecting Jesus, where the sacramental tone is reinforced by an explicit connection to receiving “bread and wine” as part of “a holy moment in time.”105
1.3.4 Community-Oriented Songs
The last group of categories have yet another orientation. This time, the community takes centre stage. Songs in this group create a sense of one-ness and together-ness in the community. They are there to build collective memory by reminding God’s people about his actions in the past (‘testimony’), to teach and educate in faith (‘teaching’), to mark the seasonal or liturgic rhythm of the community (‘thematic’), and lastly to build a common identity (‘identity-building’). Together they function as the cement for spiritual, theological, and ritual unity. Naturally, songs in this group often use a collective ‘we’, although the first person ‘I’ is also present, especially in songs of testimony. They frequently have a collective ‘you’ as their addressee, as if the choir/music team is speaking to the congregation, or the congregation is speaking to the ‘world’/general society.
1.3.4.1
While songs of thanksgiving, mentioned above, often thank God in rather general terms for his goodness and mercy or his deeds in the past, the so called ‘Memory Psalms’ or ‘Psalms of Remembrance’106 have an element of the direct retelling of specific events in the past. In the sung corpus of Woodley and Mavuno, this takes the shape of personal testimonies, recounting what God has done in the worshipper’s life, often focusing on salvation and redemption. Since the songs are ‘personal’ (in the sense of being sung in the first person singular), yet written by someone other than the worshipper and sung in a congregational context, they also build collective memory. This conforms with the tradition of giving testimonies as part of the liturgy in many revivalist and pentecostal churches.107 A few phrases from His blood still works by VaShawn Mitchell, from the Woodley corpus, sets the tone:
Another example comes from the song Fundi wa mbao (The Carpenter) by Gospel Fathers, mentioned above. The first verse says:
Shida mingi [sic] mimi niliona wee. Niliona mengi ya kuchosha wee. Toka mapande yote ya korna wee, Shida zilizidi kuchomoka wee. Nilimkumbuka mtu moja wee, Huyu fundi aitwaye Mola wee. Nilipiga goti na kumwomba wee, Naye fundi akaniokoa. |
Many problems/troubles I have seen. I have seen many tiring things. From every corner, Problems continued to crash. I remembered one person, This Carpenter who is called God! I knelt and prayed And the Carpenter saved me. |
| Emmanuel, Emmanuel, Emmanuel,ndiye fundi pekee.Emmanuel, Emmanuel, Emmanuel,ndiye fundi pekee.a | Emmanuel, Emmanuel, Emmanuel,Indeed, the unique Carpenter.Emmanuel, Emmanuel, Emmanuel,Indeed, the unique Carpenter.b |
Despite the many problems, the worshipper testifies that Emmanuel, ‘the carpenter who is called God’, has indeed rescued him. As we saw above, this song is also an example of another category, namely, ‘the lament’, as it speaks of the troubles and tiring experiences the singer has been through. Yet, in all the pain and suffering, Jesus came to save him and he can testify to that experience.
1.3.4.2 Teaching
Many songs are didactic in character, teaching the basics of Christian faith through song. They are loaded with theological content, often on a specific theme, such as the Christmas story, the Crucifixion, or telling the story of Jesus from start to end. Each song become a sermon in itself. Typical examples include Cornerstone,109 sung in Mavuno, and In Christ Alone,110 sung in Woodley, both retelling the story of the cross in vivid colours. I return to them below.
1.3.4.3 Thematic, Seasonal
Since I did my fieldwork during the Christmas season, many songs that were sung in the two churches related to this theme. In both churches Christmas hymns, such as Oh, come all ye faithful,111 were used as ‘worship songs’, according to the ritual patterns of praise and worship. Additionally, in the Woodley corpus there were thematic songs relating to communion, such as Have you been to Jesus for the cleansing power?112
1.3.4.4
Lastly, there were some songs that seemed to function as identity-builders for the community more than anything else. They spoke of the unity of the community, and connected them through their African, Christian/born again, or Kenyan identity. A song in this category, I know who I am, by Sinach,113 was discussed in a previous chapter. Another example is Africa yote yakusifu, (All Africa praises you), from the Woodley corpus, which identifies Kenyan ethnic groups and African nationalities and unites them in the refrain with the words,
Kwa makofi, na nderemo, Kwa Kucheza, na shangwe, Hapa Kenya, Yesu, twakusifu. Hapa Kenya, Yesu, twakusifu.a |
With clapping and shouts, With dancing, and praising, Here in Kenya, Jesus, we praise you. Here in Kenya, Jesus, we praise you.b |
We may note the reference here to Psalm 47 where the psalmist calls on the congregation to sing praises, clap their hands, and shout to the Lord,114 also relating to our previous discussion on ritual patterns and embodiment. Clapping, shouting, dancing, and praising are all kinetic, oral, and embodied forms of worship that form identity and community. I return to both these songs in the final chapter.
Having now described all the different categories found in the sung corpus of Mavuno and Woodley, it is time to say something of the patterns of occurrence of these types in the two churches. As Table 10 below shows, the doxology type is the most frequent in both churches, which is predictable given the liturgical context of pentecostal congregational singing. A clear difference though, is that in Mavuno none of these are in Swahili, while in Woodley, Swahili songs constitute a good third. The second most common category in both churches is testimony, which may come across as surprising, but gains logic by reference to the pentecostal practice of giving testimonies. The songs act as stylized ways
Frequency of songs according to type/literary genre
Type |
Woodley (Swahili) |
Type |
Mavuno (Swahili) |
|---|---|---|---|
Doxology |
26 (9) |
Doxology |
14 |
Testimony |
17 (5) |
Testimony |
12 (2) |
Proclamation |
17 (5) |
Teaching |
12 |
Confidence |
15 (2) |
Proclamation |
11 (1) |
Thanksgiving |
12 (4) |
Thematic, seasonal |
7 |
Sacrifice |
9 (3) |
Thanksgiving |
6 |
Identity-building |
9 (2) |
Confidence |
6 (2) |
Personal prayer |
7 (2) |
Invocation |
5 (2) |
Teaching |
7 (2) |
Sacrifice |
5 (1) |
Thematic, seasonal |
7 |
Lament |
5 (3) |
Invocation |
6 (2) |
Identity-building |
4 |
Sacrament |
4 (1) |
Personal prayer |
3 (1) |
Lament |
4 (1) |
Sacrament |
1 |
The order of the remaining categories differs slightly between the two churches. In Mavuno, didactic songs come third—hinting at the importance of teaching and discipleship in an evangelical setting—followed closely by proclamation songs, possibly hinting at a (neo-)pentecostal influence. In Woodley, proclamation is as large a category as testimony, again rather logical, highlighting the importance of the spiritual battle and the Kingship of Jesus in pentecostal theology. In both churches, confidence and thanksgiving are other large categories. The most unexpected result was that songs with a sacramental tone were not more common, especially since worship was so often explained in interviews as a meeting point between God and human. Sacrifice songs are a bit more common, but still a minor category compared to the top three in both churches.
It was intriguing to discover that the laments were as common as they were; sometimes modern charismatic worship has been accused of not acknowledging the sad side of life,115 but this is not the case here. Interestingly, many of
Overall, the Woodley corpus includes many more Swahili songs, fairly evenly spread between all the types apart from the thematic group, of which there are none. In Mavuno, Swahili songs are less common, although some of the English worship songs included the local adaptation of a bridge or a verse in Swahili. Yet it is striking that the smaller categories in Mavuno contain Swahili songs, while the larger have very few; it is as if the more ‘personal’ topics of confidence, invocation, sacrifice, prayer, and lament are more easily addressed in a local language. The opposite pattern is evident in Woodley, where doxology is the most common category in both languages.
In sum, I have attempted to show two things in this section: that the literary form and liturgical function of worship songs is rich and varied—it is not all ‘just’ praising—and that the connection with biblical themes and texts is a real one. The previous section, where I demonstrate how two selected texts recur in songs, and this one, where I categorize songs based on an exegetical typology and show how a biblicized format filters through songs, together illustrate the close connection between songs and Scripture in charismatic worship. The music teams claim that they ‘sing the Word of God’, and, indeed, this is a fairly accurate description at a form-functional level—in terms of typology and literary genres—as well as at a textual level—with biblical texts being echoed in songs. Yet, as we saw above, it is a modified truth, since biblical texts, motifs, and styles are selectively incorporated into worship based on context and conviction. The ‘call’ of the Bible is given a local pentecostal ‘response’ through singing.
Having discussed the role of the Bible in worship, I now turn to the second important theme that stood out in my lyrical content analysis, namely, Christology.
2 Christology as the Hub of Pentecostal Theology
Pentecostal theologian Kenneth Archer has proposed that Christology, and especially the Five-Fold Gospel, may serve as an entry point to all pentecostal theology. The central narrative structure that proclaims Jesus as Saviour,
The theological center is the person Jesus Christ, and protruding out of the center are the five spokes which serve to explain the significance of the story of Jesus Christ. The spokes are the central narrative convictions of the Pentecostal story. They are theological themes, which are doxological in nature and bring coherence to the Pentecostal story and provide stability for the rest of Pentecostal theology. Our Pentecostal doctrinal practices and beliefs are the wheel, connected to and stabilized by the spokes, while turning and spinning around its center—Jesus Christ. Pentecostal beliefs and practices, therefore, will always flow back to its center where it finds its ultimate significance.119
This does not imply that “Pentecostal theology is unconcerned with other doctrinal themes,” but that “all doctrinal discussions in the end will come back to the theological center—the person Jesus Christ.”120 In what follows, I show how the sung corpora of Woodley and Mavuno revolve around Jesus Christ and that two of the spokes in the wheel are especially salient in their sung theology: Jesus as Saviour and Jesus as King.
2.1
With the precision of a surgeon, Wesleyan theologian Michael A. Tapper scrutinizes the lyrics of 103 contemporary worship songs in search of trinitarian doctrine in his book, Canadian Pentecostals, the Trinity, and Contemporary Worship Music. The Things we Sing.121 The songs were all popular in the Pentecostal Assemblies of Canada (paoc)—the mother church of citam—during the time period 2007–2015, and he utilizes data from the Christian Copyright Licensing International (ccli)122 to form his sample.
Starting with the premise that the paoc is firmly trinitarian, as evidenced in their statements of faith and their denominational history, Tapper seeks to evaluate whether there is an inconsistency between their explicit doctrine and the beliefs expressed in common songs. His findings show that there is indeed such a deficit, manifested in imbalances in how God is addressed, how his actions in history are described and how the relationships between Father, Son, and Spirit are referred to in songs, as well as in descriptions of human relationality and the world. Especially important in relation to my work are his findings on divine naming practices. Among the 103 songs, only three (3 per cent) referenced all three persons in the Trinity, while 54 per cent contained at least one explicit or implicit reference to the Second Divine Person, 15 per cent had a reference to the Father and—“Shockingly for a Pentecostal context”123—merely 10 per cent to the Spirit. At the same time, 55 per cent of the songs contained vague or undefined divine names, while in 39 per cent of the songs, the latter were the only manner in which God was addressed.
When all the 1,335 names and titles are counted together as a cumulative sum total, a corresponding pattern occurs: vague or undefined naming is by far the most common, followed by implicit and explicit references to the Second Person of the Trinity. At the same time, a mere 3 per cent of the names referred to the First and Third Person respectively.124 Given this “limited particularity” in naming the persons in the Godhead, “it follows that only modest and undeveloped examples of inter-trinitarian divine relationality were found within the song list.”125 The same trends occurred when divine activity was
Tapper concludes that the overall pattern is “a modalistic overemphasis on abstract divine oneness” and “an imbalance in naming particularity”127 and that this is in agreement with the contemporary theological trends that Colin Gunton critiqued as a “‘flattening out’ of the distinctions between the unique divine persons,”128 resulting in a bordering on docetic, even Gnostic view of God. Furthermore, the substantial focus on the Son and redemption, combined with “use of generic and sweeping christological titles” put contemporary worship at risk of becoming distorted by an “‘impoverished Christology’”129 that borders on “‘Jesus-centered Unitarianism’”.130 By overemphasizing God the Son, at the expense of God the Father and God the Spirit, trinitarianism is undermined and, instead, a view of God where Jesus Christ “assumes all the theological distinctions of each of the divine persons in the Godhead”131 is ultimately advanced.
In its detail and inclusion of so many songs that are sung in charismatic circles around the world, including in my case churches, Michael Tapper’s study is an important one when it comes to theologizing practices in charismatic worship, especially insofar as doctrinal content is concerned. At the same time, there are some limitations in Tapper’s work, as he readily admits. Since he uses the ‘Top 25’ list of songs (not the total list) and his sample does not include hymns (these are in the public domain and are no longer under copyright restriction), there may well be other songs commonly used in paoc that have a different trinitarian profile. In addition, his analysis is purely textual and lyrical, and does not take into consideration the musical, liturgical, or local ecclesial context in which the songs were sung.132 That the analysis lacks insight into these hermeneutical keys ironically makes Tapper’s interpretation suffer from the same abstract and detached theological tendencies of which
Other scholars report similar results from various contexts.133 For example, Mark Cartledge includes an analysis of lyrics in his qualitative study of a British classical pentecostal church (also discussed in Chapter 5). His lyrical sample is much more limited in scope than Tapper’s, but has the advantage of being set within an ecclesial-liturgical context rather than being purely textual. He analyses eight songs composed by the local worship pastor, five of which are based on Bible passages, especially from the Psalms. His results show that the “psalm-based songs are generally theistic, addressed to God or the lord, but the others are distinctly Christological in focus. Even the hymnody that is based on the Psalms is interpreted Christologically, since the ‘lord’ is interpreted as referring to Jesus.”134
The local hymnody lacks an explicit trinitarian grammar, Cartledge reports; instead, the “Christological centre is given a general theistic context.”135 The Holy Spirit was not “explicitly addressed as a person in worship,” nor was there a “full trinitarian structure”136 in songs. The same tendency was found in sermons, prayers, and general discourse in the congregation under study. Jesus was depicted primarily as Saviour and Healer, while the other themes of the Five-Fold Gospel were not represented in the sample of songs and were less prominent in general discourse. The “easy transference”137 from the Old Testament ‘lord’ to the New Testament ‘Jesus’, as well as the combination of a general theism, Christocentrism, and a weak trinitarianism is in line with broader tendencies in pentecostal theology, Cartledge states.
Along with a strong link between the Psalms and charismatic worship (as discussed above), the results of my lyrical assessment show a similar
2.2 Jesus Is the Centre of It All: Not the Spirit
This song—popular in many charismatic circles around the world (including Mavuno at the time of my fieldwork), and drawing on Revelation 5:6 where the Lamb is “standing at the center of the throne”139—serves well as a headline for the Mavuno and Woodley’s sung corpus. The analysis shows that songs sung in my fieldwork churches certainly put Jesus ‘at the centre’, so that everything in a sense ‘revolves around’ him.
2.2.1 Naming and Addressing God
In my lyrical content analysis of the Woodley and Mavuno sung corpora, one crucial aspect was to map ways in which songs refer to God. What names and titles are used to address or designate God? To which of the persons in the Trinity do songs refer (if clear)? How many songs address God as Father? As Son? As Spirit? As neither? Are there any songs that show a clear trinitarian theology, for example mentioning Father—Son—Spirit in conjunction? Is there any difference between the languages? If so, in what way? These and similar questions have guided my analysis, and the pattern is striking to say the least.
The following table (Table 11) provides an overview of the number of songs addressing each person in the Trinity. The table presents direct ways of addressing/designating/describing God as Father, Son, or Spirit, or in similar terms. Songs that address the Son, for example, do not all say ‘Son’; they might say Jesus/Saviour/Messiah/Christ and so on. Sometimes the reference to a
Divine naming, person in Trinity addressed
Number of songs addressing: |
Woodley |
Mavuno |
||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total |
Swahili |
English |
Total |
Swahili |
English |
|
The triune God |
1 |
1 |
0 |
1 |
0 |
1 |
The Father |
10 |
8 |
2 |
6 |
3 |
3 |
The Son |
28 |
6 |
22 |
21 |
2 |
19 |
The Spirit |
2 |
1 |
1 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
Unspecified or neutral name/title |
29 |
11 |
18 |
20 |
2 |
18 |
In both churches the category of songs that address the Second Person in the Trinity is the largest one, closely followed by songs addressing God in a neutral or general manner (for example as ‘Lord’, ‘God’, or ‘You’). One might have thought that these were songs indirectly addressing the Father, but looking more closely it becomes apparent that many rather refer to the Son. Meanwhile, songs that address the Third Person comprise the smallest category in both churches; in Mavuno not a single song mentions the Spirit, and in Woodley only two songs do. The First Person is addressed in a few songs in each church, but these remain a comparatively small group. A clear trinitarian pattern can only be found in one song in each corpus, although often it is implied in other songs through expressions like ‘Son of God’ or ‘Word of the Father’. The total picture is unequivocal: in addition to being at the centre of faith, life, and everything else, Jesus is at the centre of the sung corpus.
Interestingly, when songs are differentiated according to language, the pattern changes. If only Swahili songs were considered in the Woodley corpus, songs focused on the Father are more common than those focused on the Son, while those with a neutral orientation are most common of all. In Mavuno, Swahili songs have a more or less equal focus on the Father, the Son, and
Methodologically speaking, this is a case where the singing practice in a local congregation may differ from the theological patterns of a certain musical category, which underlines the importance of ethnographic studies of actual congregational practice. Using a sample built on musical genre—for example, contemporary worship music as listed by ccli—is not the same as using a sample based on actual practice. Compared to Tapper’s study, my own approach in analysing a sung corpus, rather than a song corpus, has a distinct advantage in this regard.
The Jesus centeredness of the sung corpora becomes even more apparent when names and titles are considered, as they are in Table 12. Among the eighty-five songs that I have analysed,140 I found more than a hundred names and titles referring to or addressing God, the vast majority in English and relating to Jesus. Together the names form a picture of local theology proper.
Naturally, in some cases it was a matter of interpretation to decide to whom a title refers, and whether it should count as an unspecified/neutral one or not. In cases where the context of a general expression is clear—for example, when speaking of Jesus and then calling him ‘friend’—I have added ‘friend’ to the column of ‘Son’; when the expression is a general one, and the context is unclear or neutral, I have rather opted for the ‘Unspecified’ column. I have done my best to stay faithful to the textual context when deciding the column in which to place each specific mention.
However, despite the variety and impressive list of names and titles, there are very few original expressions.141 Instead, almost all are familiar to those who read their Bible, and have an acquaintance with Protestant church tradition, especially of a revivalist type. This can be seen from two angles: either as an indication of the lack of poetic creativity and freedom within these churches or as one of their close connection with the Church universal. My guess is that it is probably both. Song writers are somewhat limited by the liturgical function and congregational context for which they write, which may restrict their creative innovativeness and courage, while worship leaders seek to pick songs that congregants know and where the doctrinal content (including ways to address and depict God) is in line with the general theological orientation of the church and the wider ecclesial community. We may compare this with Maurice Bloch’s perspective on the syntax of ritual language, where ritual restricts the use of language in order to exercise authority. This stylization and formalization of ritual language leads to a certain kind of “‘poverty’ of expression” in ritual, putting much emphasis on form, while at the same time makes content “predictable and redundant.”142
The close connection with a Western Protestant tradition is also seen in the dominance of English expressions. That there is a redundancy of expression in English is rather natural, given that the Anglo-Saxon Christian musical repertoire is much larger than the Swahili one and has lived a literate life for much longer. It is likely that a predominately literate tradition develops a more varied set of verbal expressions than a predominately oral one, where a greater variation in rhythms, tempos, and tonality is instead likely to occur.
Divine naming, names and titles of God
Names and titles referring to: |
The Father |
The Son |
The Spirit |
Unspecified or neutral name/title |
|---|---|---|---|---|
English |
||||
Heavenly Father |
Blessed Son |
The Holy Ghost |
‘me’—not otherwise specified |
|
My Father |
Carpenter |
The Sacred Flame |
‘You’—not otherwise specified |
|
| English (cont.) | My Friend |
Christ |
Alpha and Omega |
|
My Superstar |
Christ the King |
Deliverer |
||
The Father |
Christ the Lord |
Deo |
||
You |
Coming Messiah |
God |
||
Cornerstone |
God Almighty |
|||
Friend |
God in the Highest |
|||
Fullness of God |
God Our Strength |
|||
Giver of salvation |
God of God |
|||
Healer |
God of now and afore |
|||
Holy infant |
Holy God |
|||
Immanuel/Emmanuel |
Jehova/Jehovah |
|||
Jesus |
Lord/ the Lord |
|||
Jesus Christ |
Most Holy One |
|||
King |
My All in All |
|||
King Jesus |
My Comforter |
|||
King of angels |
My Friend |
|||
King of Israel |
My God |
|||
Light of Light |
My King |
|||
Lion of Judah/Lion in the tribe of Judah |
My Lord/Our Lord |
|||
Lord Jesus |
My Portion |
|||
Lord of all |
Our God |
|||
Lord of Glory |
Protector |
|||
Lord of Lords |
Provider |
|||
Lord of my life |
Redeemer |
|||
My healer |
Ruler |
|||
My Savior |
The God we serve |
|||
Omnipotent Savior |
The King of Glory |
|||
Savior/ Saviour/ The Saviour |
The King of Kings/ King of Kings |
|||
Son |
The Lord our God |
|||
Son of God |
The Most High God |
|||
The Babe/ The Baby |
The One I adore |
|||
The Bridegroom |
||||
| English (cont.) | The Bright and the Morning star |
|||
The Chosen One |
||||
The Crucified |
||||
The Darling of Heaven |
||||
The Lamb |
||||
The Lily of the Valley |
||||
The little Lord Jesus |
||||
The Root and Offspring of David |
||||
The Solid Rock |
||||
The Son of Mary |
||||
Very God |
||||
Word of the Father |
||||
Total: |
6 |
46 |
2 |
33 |
Swahili |
||||
Baba (Father) |
Bwana Yesu (Lord Jesus) |
Roho (Spirit) |
‘Wewe’—unspecified (you) |
|
Baba yangu/ Babangu (My Father) |
Fundi wa Mbao (Carpenter) Kristo Simba wa Yuda (Christ, Lion of Judah) |
Bwana (Lord) Ebeneza kwangu (My Ebenezer) Mola (God) Mungu (God) Mungu aishiye (The Living God) Mungu wa miungu (God of Gods) Rafiki Yangu (My friend) Yahweh/Yahwe (Jahve/Jehovah) |
||
Baba yetu (Our Father) |
||||
Yesu (Jesus) |
||||
Total: |
3 |
4 |
1 |
9 |
In Table 12 above, I have not separated the corpora of Mavuno and Woodley, rather putting all the different expressions in the same list and dividing according to language, yet a comment on the differences between the two churches is
One aspect that differs between the two corpora lies in designations of the Son. In Woodley, the go-to name is ‘Jesus/Yesu’ and different forms of ‘Lord/Bwana’. The title ‘Christ’ is only used in three songs in Woodley, and ‘Jesus Christ’ is not used even once. In Mavuno however, different expressions that include ‘Christ’ are as common as expressions that include ‘Lord’ and more frequent than ‘Jesus/Yesu’. Here I think we can see the evangelical vs. pentecostal question in a nutshell. If Woodley leans more toward the pentecostal tradition—wherein ‘Christ’ has long been perceived as too distant a name and associated with the historical churches—Mavuno leans more toward the evangelical tradition, wherein designating Jesus as Christ is more commonly accepted. I have tried to mirror this local usage by alternating between ‘Jesus’ and ‘Christ’ when referring to the Second Person of the Trinity in this chapter. Interestingly, Mavuno, which seeks to be innovative in terms of ritual forms and language, is still rather traditional when it comes to names and titles of God, and not as innovative as one might expect. Doctrinally speaking, they are ‘obviously conservative’ as Pastor Kamau pointed out above.
Another difference is the proportion of neutral or unspecified names and titles. Among names and titles only used in Woodley, there is a relatively larger proportion of expressions referencing God in a neutral manner, which is due to the relatively larger group of Swahili songs. As shown in Table 11, unspecified or general names and titles are more frequent in Swahili, possibly indicating a view of God that is more holistic or unified, in line with African Traditional Religion, yet this is hard to say with certainty, since the total number of songs and expressions in Swahili is so small.
The one God is a passionate lover, a father, a sweet wind, a bridegroom, a warrior—to name a few of the images woven together to express Christian myth. Unity, one of the traits of mysticism, is a theme that sometimes subtly and sometimes more directly permeates the renewal/revival movement. … Unity within the triune Godhead, unity between God and humans, unity among disparate groups of people are all frequent themes that can be found in revival music.144
I will return to the connection between charismatic worship and mysticism in Chapter 8, suffice it to say now that the naming practices point in such a direction.
2.2.2 The Son or the Spirit?
Taken together, Tables 11 and 12 show with indisputable clarity that Jesus is indeed the centre of it all, and that the whole sung corpus revolves around him. Thus, the overall pattern in terms of how God is addressed is strikingly Christ centred, leaving almost no room for adoration of God as Father, Spirit, or Triune. This does not imply that either Woodley or Mavuno endorse so-called “Oneness Pentecostalism”;145 they are clearly Trinitarian in their preaching and statements of faith (as discussed in Chapter 4). Nevertheless, the emphasis of this Trinitarian theology seems to be rather on the Second Person of the Trinity, the Son, than on the Third Person, the Spirit. Thinking of Pentecostalism and how it is usually described by Pentecostals (including some of my interviewees) and researchers alike, as defined by an emphasis on the Holy Spirit and spiritual gifts,146 it is quite astonishing. However, the results of my study point in the same direction as those of Michael A. Tapper and Mark Cartledge, recounted above. The general picture of the two corpora is one of Christ centredness, with the other divine persons playing smaller parts and the trinitarian structure weak or unclear.
Theologically, these results also conform with the findings of church historian Ulrik Josefsson. Placing the early Swedish Pentecostal movement typologically among pietistic forms of Christianity, he says that even though the
Partly it is a matter of perspective. If pentecostal faith is compared to other (revivalist) Protestant traditions, its pneumatology stands out as specific and defining, while if pentecostal faith is measured by what characterizes it—rather than by what distinguishes it—then Christology certainly qualifies as the defining feature, judging from my data. It may also be a matter of how to understand ‘Spirit Baptism’ or ‘life in the Spirit’ theologically. Often this is regarded as part of the pneumatology of pentecostal theology, that is, the doctrine of the Third Person, while it may just as well be understood as part of its soteriology, or even its Christology. What I mean is that pentecostal doctrines concerning Spirit Baptism and spiritual gifts have just as much to do with an understanding of what salvation is (life in the Spirit/life with Jesus) and who the Son is (Spirit-giver), as they have to do with how the Spirit per se is perceived. In fact, discussions of the nature of the Spirit (indeed, of the nature of God) are rather rare even in academic forms of pentecostal theology,149 while discussions of Spirit Baptism and spiritual gifts abound.150 The focus is often
Theologically speaking, one might argue that the role of the Spirit is always to point beyond himself and give glory to the Father and Son. While shunning personal attention, he points in the direction of the other two persons of the Trinity. For as much as Christ mediates the Holy Spirit as a gift from the Father, the Holy Spirit also mediates Christ to the church, and the worship of the church to the Son/Father.152 The Spirit is the one mediating between Son and humanity, at the same time evoking a response of adoration and gratitude. The Holy Spirit “brings Christ to us and us to Christ.”153 This mediation has eschatological implications, for the Holy Spirit is “intrinsic” to the “in-breaking of the rule and reign of God,” since the “very presence of the Spirit signals a new age, and this new age has a christological focus”.154 In a sense, it is only natural that a Holy Spirit movement should thus become a Jesus movement.
We may conclude that songs in Mavuno and Woodley worship Jesus with vivid imaginary and a rich set of expressions. There is a high degree of uniformity in terms of Christ centeredness in the total corpora, underlining the role played by Christology in pentecostal theology. In the sung theology of the case churches, Christ is indeed the ‘centre of it all’—the ‘hub’ of pentecostal theology and spirituality. That the Holy Spirit is almost entirely absent from the lyrics is interesting and shows that we must look beyond a narrow understanding of pentecostal theology as defined by pneumatology. This result can be seen as a direct outcome of using an ethnographic method in theological research, as most literature on Pentecostalism would lead us in a different direction. It is also a direct result of looking at the sung, rather than the spoken theology. Although I have not examined this aspect of my data in any detail, a quick overview of divine naming practice in prayers and sermons shows that while
In the next section, I take a closer look at the sung Christology of Mavuno and Woodley, circling around two central themes: Jesus as Saviour and Jesus as King.
2.3 Christ as (Newborn, Crucified, and Triumphant) Saviour and King
As we saw above, Kenneth Archer has suggested that the Five-Fold Gospel could work as a structure for understanding pentecostal theology as centred around Christology. In early classic Pentecostalism, the Five-Fold Gospel was a major organizing principle when faith was considered, and one that also gave rise to a split between different kinds of Pentecostals: those who favoured a four-fold schema against those who favoured a five-fold. Donald Dayton has described this at some length,155 but the debate between the two is not relevant to my discussion. What I find relevant, however, is the way the five Christological themes are carried over into current liturgical and theological practice among Pentecostals.
While working on the songs in Woodley and Mavuno, I was struck by the salience of two of these themes: Jesus as Saviour and as King.156 This is especially so when the themes are understood broadly and ‘King’ is taken to include depictions of Christ as Lord (which I think is fair given how these expressions are used in the corpus), and when Saviour is regarded as a theme that includes incarnation and crucifixion, in addition to regeneration and life with Jesus
Below, I have organized the description of Jesus as King and as Saviour around three main motifs; the Newborn, the Crucified, and the Triumphant, illustrating with songs that picture Christ accordingly. The motifs are not easily separated since songs often have a narrative outline—telling the story of Jesus from birth, via the cross and resurrection, to triumph, with the last two images in particular often melting together into one—yet, for analytic clarity, I have nevertheless tried. In each section I illustrate how worship songs simultaneously teach both theology and ritual, demonstrating their integration into pentecostal spirituality. Towards the end, I discuss songs that combine the motifs and relate the sung Christology to speech act theory and performative language.
2.3.1 The Newborn
Since many songs in my collected corpora are Christmas hymns, it is natural that the Newborn Jesus attracts a certain attention in the total picture. One could claim with some validity that this attention is not present at other seasons of the year, and so the collection is biased in this regard; however, one could just as well argue that the fact that both Mavuno and Woodley have specific Christmas services, and include Christmas hymns in their repertoire to such an extent during this season, points to the importance of this part of their year-round theology. It is as if there is a latent belief in Jesus as the Newborn Saviour King that surfaces through song each Christmas and so is maintained in local theology via liturgy. While brief in duration, the regularity and intensity of its inclusion in the ritual life of the two congregations speaks of the endurance and sustainability of this Christological motif. It may well be that the belief is more central to their theology than it seems at other times of the year, underpinning more overt doctrines such as incarnation, redemption, salvation, and eschatology. In my view, the fact that I had the opportunity to visit them during the Christmas period actually gave me a chance to deepen my interpretation of their theology rather than the reverse.
How is the Newborn Jesus depicted in songs? Let us listen to examples from Away in a manger, Silent night, and What child is this? All three songs were sung
In this song, Jesus is first described as ‘the little Lord Jesus’ and his humble start in life is indicated by reference to the manger and hay that formed his first bed. The little Lord Jesus is asleep and when he awakens, he does not even cry, underlining just how sweet and mild he is. The baby is watched over by the stars in heaven and the cattle on earth, hinting at his importance and true identity as the Lord of heaven and earth. This identity is revealed in the latter part of the second verse, where the focus shifts from ‘the little Lord’ in the manger to ‘Lord Jesus’ looking down from the sky. Here, Jesus is no more ‘the Baby’, but suddenly the risen and ascended Christ. He is the one to whom the worshipper turns in love and longing, present simultaneously both in heaven and by the (bed)side of the singer.
We may compare with the depiction of Jesus in Silent night, where the first verse describes him as a sleeping baby:
Again, Jesus is described as a small child, sleeping on the Virgin Mary’s lap, guarded by shepherds and adored by angels. The hymn explicitly asks about the baby’s identity, ‘What child is this?’—answering immediately, ‘This is Christ the King, the Babe, the Son of Mary’. If the first two songs postpone
To sum up, the above songs underline the identity of the Newborn Jesus as King and Saviour, meanwhile confirming the virgin birth and the incarnation, and put the sung Christology of Woodley and Mavuno firmly in line with Christian theology as expressed in the Nicene Creed. In addition, the songs motivate and instruct worship. Despite the language being partly archaic, the hymns are still picked up and utilized in contemporary worship, even in a hip, urban church like Mavuno. I think that at least part of the reason for this is that they seem to validate charismatic worship practices; they picture an ideal of being loud and joyful, singing and proclaiming Christ’s rule and engaging emotionally and kinetically in worship. The songs thus perform a dual function, teaching both theology (who is Christ?) and ritual (how is he supposed to be worshipped?).
2.3.2 The Crucified
The death and resurrection of Christ is indeed a central theme in most Christian theology, and the sung theology of Mavuno and Woodley is no exception. Many songs in the corpora of both churches mention the cross, the grave, the blood, or in other ways refer to this central theme. The songs often link Jesus’ role as Saviour to the human condition of sin and a personal experience of salvation, thereby putting the worshipper into this story, linking the events in Jesus’ life to the events of those singing or listening. In the final chapter I return to this theme, examining the transformative side of it. Here, I focus on how the songs picture Christ. The first example is How deep the Father’s love for us, by Stuart Townend, from the Mavuno corpus. The first two verses say,
The format of the song is that of a testimony, personally retelling the Calvary events and how they have had an effect on the life of the singer. The singer’s voice is speaking as a representative of those who belong to Christ, possibly of the whole of humankind. He witnesses that Jesus Christ has taken ‘my sin upon His shoulder’, died ‘upon a cross’, and ‘brought me life’ through ‘his dying breath’. This mystery—that the Father gave his Son, that Christ took on the sin of the world, and that his death and resurrection bring life—is unfathomable to the singer. In the third verse he asks, “Why should I gain from His reward? I cannot give an answer,” and yet “His wounds have paid my ransom.”162 When sung in a congregational setting, the contemporary worshippers become witnesses to the same mystery. Jesus is the Saviour on a cosmic and personal scale at once.
Both corpora picture Christ as the crucified Saviour, the one giving his life on a cross for the redemption of humankind. Again, their Christology is in line with the Nicene creed, confirming incarnation, crucifixion, resurrection, ascension, and the second coming of Christ. The sacrificial theme is especially strong: Christ bearing the sins of the world, taking them on himself and offering his blood as a sacrifice, a ransom for many. In addition to professing fundamental Christian doctrines, the songs foster an attitude of gratitude and trust, and serve as reminders of what Christ has done. Functioning as personal and collective testimony, they indirectly motivate that very practice within the pentecostal tradition. Thus, they teach theology (who Christ is), as well as ritual (in this case, testimony).
2.3.3 The Triumphant
If there is anything that characterizes pentecostal Christology, it is its triumphalist tone. Christ is indeed what the Swedish theologian Gustaf Aulén has
The tone in this song is very different from the Christmas hymns with which I started my exploration in this section. Here, Jesus is no longer a tiny, sleeping baby on his mother’s lap, but a powerful ruler leading his forces to conquer the land. He is the Davidic King, the ‘Lion of Judah’, celebrated with the military sounding ‘Hail!’ The song’s title, Victory chant, says a lot about its format. This
Instead of focusing on the messianic aspects of Christ’s Kingship, some songs assume a cosmic scale, like the globally well-known worship song Above all, which says in the first verse, “Above all powers, above all kings, above all nature and all created things … You were here before the world began.”168 That the song in fact refers to Christ and not to the Father, or to God in an unspecified manner, can be seen from the bridge where the one addressed is described as “crucified” and “laid behind a stone.”169 Christ is the one above all other; he is the eternal Lord. Another example is the way Mavuno takes a pop song, The best, and transforms it into a worship song by replacing ‘baby’ with ‘Lord Jesus’ in the refrain. The line, “You’re simply the best, better than all the rest,”170 gets a rather different interpretation when sung in a charismatic setting instead of as an ordinary love song. Yet another example can be found in Awesome, by Charles Jenkins. The verse says, “My God is awesome, Savior of the whole world. Giver of salvation, by His stripes I am healed,” while the bridge calls him “mighty,” “holy,” and “great.”171 Note how Christ is referred to as God and Saviour of the whole world, and how he is worshipped with words that resemble the worship at the throne in heaven as described by the Book of Revelation and discussed above.
A typical aspect of songs focusing on the victory of Christ is not just how they picture Jesus as Triumphant, but also how they include the worshipper
This language of the victory of the redeemed is related to the pentecostal view of Evil. According to many Pentecostals, there is a war going on in the spiritual realm between the Kingdom of God and the Kingdom of Darkness. Although the victory has already been won at Calvary, it is not yet fully in effect on earth. Until Christ returns for the ultimate victory, his followers are under attack from the Devil. The good news is that they can take part in this spiritual battle by means of their declarative prayers, changing spiritual realities for themselves as well as for their cities and nations, thus enlarging the Kingdom.175 Proclaiming Christ’s victory and declaring his Kingdom, they can stand tall and be victorious. Ritually speaking, prayers that have this declarative function often go under the label of spiritual warfare, and frequently songs put the worshipper in a similar position. Again, the song has a dual function, teaching theology (who Christ is) and teaching ritual (this time, spiritual warfare).
2.3.4 Connecting the Three Motifs and Two Identities of Christ
Comparison of The Solid Rock, Cornerstone, and Cha Kutumaini Sina/I Have Nothing to Hope For
The Solid Rocka |
Cornerstoneb |
I Have Nothing to Hope For (translation)c |
Cha Kutumaini Sina (original) |
|---|---|---|---|
My hope is built on nothing less, Than Jesus’ blood and righteousness. I dare not trust the sweetest frame, But wholly lean on Jesus’ name. |
My hope is built on nothing less, Than Jesus’ blood and righteousness. I dare not trust the sweetest frame, But wholly trust in Jesus’ name. |
I have nothing to hope for, But only the blood of the Lord. I don’t have enough goodness, to wash away my sins. |
Cha kutumaini sina, Ila damu yake Bwana. Sina wema wa kutosha, Dhambi zangu kuziosha (huziosha). |
On Christ the solid rock I stand, All other ground is sinking sand, All other ground is sinking sand. |
Christ alone; cornerstone, Weak made strong in the Savior’s love. Through the storm, He is Lord, Lord of all. |
For/On Jesus I stand, He is the rock, I am safe. He is the rock, I am safe. He is the rock, I am safe. |
Kwake Yesu nasimama, Ndiye mwamba ni salama. Ndiye mwamba ni salama. Ndiye mwamba ni salama. |
When darkness veils His loving face, I rest on his unchanging grace, In every high and stormy gale, My anchor holds within the veil. |
When darkness seems to hide His face, I rest on His unchanging grace. In every high and stormy gale, My anchor holds within the veil, My anchor holds within the veil. |
Let (even if) my way be long, He gives me salvation. If waves beat me, (His) strengths are an anchor. |
Njia yangu iwe ndefu, Ye hunipa wokovu. Mawimbi yakinipiga, Nguvu ndizo nanga. |
When He Shall Come With Trumpet Sound, |
When He shall come with trumpet sound, |
If I am called for judgement, |
Nikiitwa hukumuni, |
Oh, May I Then in Him Be Found. |
Oh, may I then in Him be found. |
In my soul I have peace. |
Rohoni nina amani. |
Dressed in His Righteousness Alone, Faultless to Stand Before the Throne. |
Dressed in His righteousness alone, Faultless stand before the throne. |
When I am clothed with his righteousness, I have no fear in front of him. |
Nikivikwa haki yake, Sina hofu mbele zake. |
Your blood and promise, I depend on always. All that is below even if they end, The redeemer is enough for me. |
Damu yako na ahadi, Nategemea daima. Yote chini yakiisha, Mwokozi atanitosha. |
a By Edward Mote and William Bradbury. Public domain.
In this song, Christ is depicted as a solid rock or cornerstone on which the singer builds his or her life. In him, there is hope, grace, protection, strength, righteousness, and peace. Before him there is no fear and, whatever happens, the singer can be safe, trusting Jesus in everything. The blood of Jesus (and the name of Jesus) is depicted as the basis for salvation, both now (‘even if waves beat me’) and at the end of times (‘when He shall come with trumpet sound’), thus connecting present realities with past and future. The songs contain references to God’s throne (‘faultless to stand before the throne’) and to the tabernacle (‘my anchor holds within the veil’). Again, a number of biblical passages linger in the background, such as Matthew 21:42 and Ephesians 2:20 that refer to Christ as the ‘Cornerstone’, Psalm 18 that says, “The Lord is my rock, my
By placing the songs side by side, and examining the biblical background, it becomes apparent that the local theology (along with the pentecostal tradition in general), makes a very strong connection between the Old Testament depiction of the Lord and the New Testament depiction of Christ. Christ is the Rock, the Lord of the Old Testament, and at the same time the Cornerstone, the founder of a new covenant.
Other songs connect the motifs by virtue of a narrative outline, telling the story of Christ from birth, via the cross, to the resurrection and triumphant return. Examples include the contemporary worship classics, Lord I lift your name on high,178 and In Christ alone. The latter captures many of the themes that we have discussed so far and has a narrative structure:
This song can be said to summarize the local Christology as I have described it here, depicting Christ as the Newborn, Crucified, and Triumphant Saviour and King. The first verse speaks of Christ as the ‘Cornerstone’, and expresses the hope and trust that the worshipper has in him. The second verse describes the incarnation (‘fullness of God in helpless babe’) and crucifixion (‘scorned by the ones he came to save’, ‘the cross’), while the third verse celebrates the resurrection (‘glorious day’, ‘up from the grave He rose again’, ‘victory’). The last verse focuses on the security of salvation (‘no guilt in life, no fear in death’, ‘no power of hell, no scheme of man’) and the second coming of Christ (‘til He returns’).
Interestingly, two different views of the atonement operate side by side in this song. First the view that Gustaf Aulén called the Latin view, commonly referred to as the objective view of atonement (‘The wrath of God was satisfied’), and then the Christus Victor view, where the cross is a matter of winning the battle over evil and paying ‘a ransom’ for sin (‘as He stands in victory, Sin’s curse has lost its grip on me’).180 As I read the text, the latter view dominates in
2.3.5 Declaring Christ as Saviour and King: Performativity in Worship
Above, I have showed how songs teach both theology (most notably Christology) and ritual (worship, testimony, spiritual warfare). Sometimes it is the format of the song that indirectly instructs worshippers’ ritual behaviour, sometimes it is the content.
Yet it is not enough to say that the songs teach (a certain kind of) ritual performance; we must also underline that the songs are performative in and of themselves. This is to say that the songs in themselves constitute worship/testimony/proclamation; they do not merely teach ways to worship/testify/declare. One way to understand this is through the theory of ‘performative utterances’ or ‘speech acts’, formulated by Austin and Searle181 and picked up by Gifford in relation to pentecostal preaching.182 According to this theory, words can have an instrumental or performative dimension. For example, as noted above, when a couple are getting married, the words declaring them husband and wife actually render them so. “These words do not describe the deed; they are the deed,”183 ritual theorist Catherine Bell explains. She says that “the simple insight” of this theory is that “some words do things.”184 Words can thus be performative, and rituals themselves can also be performative in this sense, accomplishing change in the real world by virtue of their own power, exemplified by a coronation rite that declares a person King or Queen. Drawing on Geertz’s study of rituals in Bali, Bell says that “the vast ceremonial displays of kingly ritual themselves constitute kingly power, just as performative utterances do things, not simply communicate things”; thus, “ritual creates the authority of the monarch, it does not simply display it.”185
3 Conclusion: Theologizing through Worship
The central quest of this chapter has been to trace the theologizing practices of local pentecostal worship in Woodley and Mavuno, and I have done so following two parallel tracks: the doctrinal content of the sung corpus, and the processes and underlying theological convictions that play out in the total picture. My aim has been to point out how much theologizing actually takes place in musicking, and to ‘read’ local theology from the sung corpus.
Theology does not happen in a vacuum; rather, it is affected by the spiritual, liturgical, and cultural landscape in which it takes place. Theologizing through music is a matter of constant interaction between text and context: between the call of the Bible and the response of the singing congregation. Therefore, it is important to study the doctrinal content of songs, not in isolation, but as part of the totality of a concrete worship practice that also involves ritualization and embodiment. In worship, congregants communally relate to God in deep and meaningful ways that involve body and senses, as we saw in the previous chapters, yet at the same time they also engage cognitively with Christian faith, learning to think theologically and biblically about God, as demonstrated in this chapter. The way songs depict and address God is not arbitrary; it is the outcome of a certain theology, and it also continuously shapes that same theology.
One overarching principle is to be biblical—to sing the Word of God—which is why songs that re-oralize Scripture are chosen above others, whether they display a format similar to the Psalter, a biblicized style, or draw on specific passages from the Bible. To show that this is indeed the case, I presented a number of examples from their sung corpus. Another central principle is Christ centredness, in that the Second Person of the Trinity receives much more attention in lyrics than either the First or the Third, as evidenced by naming practices. This principle was discussed in relation to the Five-Fold Gospel as the hub of pentecostal theology, and examples were given of how Jesus is depicted as Saviour and as King, and their doctrinal and ritual implications were discussed. Throughout the chapter I have sought to alternate between the doctrinal content of songs, and the processes and convictions that they draw on and shape, in order to show how the theologizing practice of worship takes concrete form in local spirituality and ritual.
This study is drawing towards its end, and having discussed pentecostal worship from ritual-liturgical, somatic-emotional, as well as doctrinal-theological angles, it is time to wrap it up with a look at the total picture. For worship is not just orthopraxis, orthopathos, and orthopistis, it is also orthodoxa. To this we now turn in a concluding chapter.
King, ‘Bible: Lex Canendi, Lex Credendi’.
Note that I deliberately refer to this as a sung corpus, highlighting the connection to a concrete liturgical practice, unlike Michael Tapper who speaks of his selection as a “song corpus”. Tapper, Canadian Pentecostals, the Trinity, and Contemporary Worship Music: The Things We Sing, 133.
Archer, The Gospel Revisited: Towards a Pentecostal Theology of Worship and Witness, 11; Saliers, Worship as Theology: Foretaste of Glory Divine, 40. See further discussion in Chapters Two and Eight.
Floyd, ‘Ring Shout! Literary Studies, Historical Studies, and Black Music Inquiry’.
Cultural Theory: Black Music Part 2, 2019,
Clarke, ‘Call and Response: Toward an African Pentecostal Theological Method’, 28.
Clarke, 27.
Clarke, 36–39.
Clarke, 29.
Clarke, 29–36.
Clarke, 28.
Anderson, An Introduction to Pentecostalism: Global Charismatic Christianity, 225.
Anderson, 225.
Anderson, 225.
Anderson, 225; see also discussion in, Kalu, African Pentecostalism: An Introduction, 249–69; and Gifford, ‘The Ritual Use of the Bible in African Pentecostalism’, 187; as well as Robbins, ‘The Obvious Aspects of Pentecostalism: Ritual and Pentecostal Globalization’, 64, on the difference between fundamentalism and Pentecostalism.
Anderson, An Introduction to Pentecostalism: Global Charismatic Christianity, 226.
Anderson, 225.
Anderson, 226.
Hebrews 4:12. The verse says: “For the word of God is alive and active. Sharper than any double-edged sword, it penetrates even to dividing soul and spirit, joints and marrow; it judges the thoughts and attitudes of the heart.” niv.
Anderson, An Introduction to Pentecostalism: Global Charismatic Christianity, 226; see also Kalu, African Pentecostalism: An Introduction, 266–69; and Clarke, ‘Call and Response: Toward an African Pentecostal Theological Method’, 29. A deeper discussion of pentecostal hermeneutics can be found in Yong, The Hermeneutical Spirit: Theological Interpretation and Scriptural Imagination for the 21st Century.
Gifford, ‘The Ritual Use of the Bible in African Pentecostalism’, 187. Emphasis in original.
Gifford, 187.
Gifford, 179–80.
See further discussion below; compare Bell, Ritual: Perspectives and Dimensions, 68–69.
Gifford, ‘The Ritual Use of the Bible in African Pentecostalism’, 180; compare discussion in John Gallegos, ‘African Pentecostal Hermeneutics’, in Pentecostal Theology in Africa, ed. Clifton R. Clarke (Eugene, OR: Pickwick Publications, 2014), 52–57.
Compare ‘precritical readings’ of the Bible, where the reader fits himself into the biblical narrative through a figural interpretation, discussed in Hans W. Frei, The Eclipse of Biblical Narrative: A Study in Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century Hermeneutics (New Haven ; Yale University Press, 1977), 1–50. John Gallegos refers to this interpretive process as an “interaction,” between text and reader, Gallegos, ‘African Pentecostal Hermeneutics’, 43; while Ulrik Josefsson prefers the term ‘transhistorical biblicism’ (‘transhistorisk biblicism’) Josefsson, Liv och Över Nog: Den Tidiga Pingströrelsens Spiritualitet. Abundant Life: The Spirituality of the Early Pentecostal Movement in Sweden, 189; see also discussion in Aron Engberg, Walking on the Pages of the Word of God: Self, Land, and Text among Evangelical Volunteers in Jerusalem. Currents of Encounter: Studies in Interreligious and Intercultural Relations (Leiden: Brill, 2019).
Anderson, An Introduction to Pentecostalism: Global Charismatic Christianity, 227.
Gifford, ‘The Ritual Use of the Bible in African Pentecostalism’, 179–97.
Compare Gifford, Christianity, Politics and Public Life in Kenya, 249–69; Gallegos, ‘African Pentecostal Hermeneutics’, 40–57.
Land made similar observations about classical Pentecostals in the early 20th century, Land, Pentecostal Spirituality: A Passion for the Kingdom; while Ruth & Lim has commented on this aspect in relation to contemporary worship music, Ruth and Lim, Lovin’ on Jesus: A Concise History of Contemporary Worship.
Clarke, ‘Call and Response: Toward an African Pentecostal Theological Method’, 29; see also Clifton Clarke, African Christology: Jesus in Post-Missionary African Christianity (Eugene, OR: Pickwick Publications, 2011).
King, ‘Bible: Lex Canendi, Lex Credendi’, 118.
King, 120.
Interview Mavuno Music Team 2014-02-02, M61.
Interview Mavuno Music Team 2014-02-02, M61.
Interview Mavuno Music Team 2014-02-02, F86.
Interview Mavuno Music Team 2014-02-02, F86.
Interview Mavuno Music Team 2014-02-02, F93.
Interview Mavuno Music Team 2014-02-02.
Isa. 55:11, niv.
Interview Woodley Music Team 2014-02-08.
Interview Mavuno Music Team 2014-02-02 referencing the song, I know who I am, by Sinach. Compare discussion in Chapters Six and Eight.
Gifford, ‘The Ritual Use of the Bible in African Pentecostalism’, 188.
Ruth and Lim, Lovin’ on Jesus: A Concise History of Contemporary Worship, 111.
Ruth and Lim, 112.
Ruth and Lim, 105–20, 129. For the importance of the throne motif in Isaiah for early Pentecostalism, see Jacqueline Grey, ‘The Book of Isaiah and Pentecostal Worship’, in Toward a Pentecostal Theology of Worship, ed. Lee R. Martin (Cleveland, TN: cpt Press, 2016), 28–38.
Interviews Mavuno Music Team 2014-02-02; Woodley Music Team 2014-02-08; Pastor Josh 2014-02-12; Pastor Rose 2014-01-31.
1 Chron. 13:1–14.
1 Chron. 15:16, niv.
1 Chron. 15:27, niv.
1 Chron. 16:4, niv.
1 Chron. 16:1, niv.
1 Chron. 16:8, niv.
Interviews Mavuno Music Team 2014-02-02; Woodley Music Team 2014-02-08; Pastor Rose 2014-01-31. Compare Ruth and Lim, Lovin’ on Jesus: A Concise History of Contemporary Worship, 113–14.
In addition to 1 Chron. 16, these two songs draw on the following passages: 2 Cor. 5:13, 7:3, Ezra 3:11, Ps. 106:1, 107:1, 118:1, 29, 136:1.
Compare findings in Tapper on the scarcity of references to God’s actions with the people of Israel. Tapper, Canadian Pentecostals, the Trinity, and Contemporary Worship Music: The Things We Sing, 183–85.
Rev. 4:2–8, niv.
Rev 5:6, niv.
Rev 5:9, niv.
Michael David Coogan, The Old Testament: A Historical and Literary Introduction to the Hebrew Scriptures (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 69, 460–66.
Coogan, 460.
Coogan, 460.
Raymond B. Dillard and Tremper Longman, An Introduction to the Old Testament (Leicester: Apollos, 1995), 219–25.
Interview Mavuno Music Team 2014-02-02; Woodley Music Team 2014-02-08; Pastor Nyaga 2014-03-21; Pastor Josh 2014-02-12; Pastor Rose 2013-01-20.
Holter, Yahweh in Africa: Essays on Africa and the Old Testament; Matti Peltola, Vanhan Testamentin Käyttämisestä Afrikassa (On the Use of the Old Testament in Africa, English Summary Pp. 79–86) (Helsinki: Annales Societatis Missiologicae Fennicae V. The Finnish Society for Missionary Research, 1961); Gerald O. West and Musa W. Dube Shomanah, eds., The Bible in Africa: Transactions, Trajectories, and Trends (Leiden: Brill, 2000).
See, for example, David Davage, 7 Myter om Lovsång: Och Vad Bibeln Egentligen Säger (Umeå: Davidmedia, 2020); Martin, ‘The Book of Psalms and Pentecostal Worship’; Ruth and Lim, Lovin’ on Jesus: A Concise History of Contemporary Worship, 108–11.
Coogan, The Old Testament: A Historical and Literary Introduction to the Hebrew Scriptures, 460.
Poloma, Main Street Mystics: The Toronto Blessing and Reviving Pentecostalism, 48.
Dillard and Longman, An Introduction to the Old Testament, 219. I have opted for ‘doxology’ rather than ‘hymn’, not to confuse it with the musical category ‘hymn’.
By Hezekiah Walker & John David Bratton.
By James Chadwick. Public domain.
By Kurt Carr.
Lk. 2:14, niv.
Ps. 134:1–2, niv.
Dillard and Longman, An Introduction to the Old Testament, 222–23.
By Patrick Nakaya.
Ps. 106:1, niv.
For example: 1 Chron. 16:7–43, 2 Chron. 5–7, Ezra 3:11, Ps. 107:1, 118:1, 29, 136:1.
By Don Moen & Paul Baloche.
Ps. 9:1, niv.
Gifford, ‘The Ritual Use of the Bible in African Pentecostalism’, 180.
Dillard and Longman, An Introduction to the Old Testament, 224.
See discussion on the Five-Fold gospel below.
By Chris Tomlin, Jesse Reeves, Jonas Myrin & Matt Redman.
By Chris Tomlin, Jesse Reeves, Jonas Myrin & Matt Redman.
By Chris Tomlin, Jesse Reeves, Jonas Myrin & Matt Redman.
Ps. 135:5, niv.
Rom. 8:31, 37, niv.
Poloma, Main Street Mystics: The Toronto Blessing and Reviving Pentecostalism, 48.
Dillard and Longman, An Introduction to the Old Testament, 220–21.
Ps. 69:16–18, 7, niv.
Dillard and Longman, An Introduction to the Old Testament, 223.
Hymn by E.A. Hoffman (1887). Public domain.
Num. 18:20, nasb. Compare Deut. 18:1–2.
Ps. 16:5, 11, niv.
By Rose Muhando.
By Annie S. Hawks and Robert Lowry (1872). Public domain.
Swahili traditional chorus adapted by Kaberia & the Klan, aflewo (Africa Let’s Worship).
Attributed to Martin Luther. Public domain.
See for example Ps. 27:6, 50:14, 23, 51:17, 54:6, 107:22, 116:17, 141:2, compare Heb. 13:15.
By Kirk Dearman.
By William McDowell.
Compare discussion in Chapters 5 and 8.
By Tye Tribbett.
By John Chisum & Nancy Gordon.
Dillard and Longman, An Introduction to the Old Testament, 223.
Gifford, Christianity, Politics and Public Life in Kenya, 188; Gallegos, ‘African Pentecostal Hermeneutics’, 55. In Swahili this is referred to as the Ushuhuda, see recurrent discussion in Mugambi, A Spirit of Revitalization: Urban Pentecostalism in Kenya.
By VaShawn Mitchell.
By Edward Mote, Eric Liljero, Jonas Myrin, Reuben Morgan, William Batchelder Bradbury.
By Keith Getty & Stuart Townend.
Hymn by John Francis Wade. Public domain.
Hymn by E.A Hoffman. Public Domain.
By Sinach Kalu Okoro Egbu.
Ps. 47:1, 5–7; compare Ps. 149.
Compare discussion in Martin, ‘The Book of Psalms and Pentecostal Worship’, 77–80.
Archer, The Gospel Revisited: Towards a Pentecostal Theology of Worship and Witness, 68.
Archer, 1–17, 65–82. Several other scholars have pointed out the importance of the Five-Fold Gospel for pentecostal theology; see, for example, Peter Althouse, ‘Pentecostal Eschatology in Context: The Eschatological Orientation of the Full Gospel’, in Perspectives in Pentecostal Eschatologies: World without End, ed. Peter Althouse and Robby Waddell (Eugene, OR: Pickwick Publications, 2010); Dayton, Theological Roots of Pentecostalism; Matthew K. Thompson, ‘Eschatology as Soteriological: The Cosmic Full Gospel’, in Perspectives in Pentecostal Eschatologies: World without End, ed. Peter Althouse and Robby Waddell (Eugene, OR: Pickwick Publications, 2010); Amos Yong, In the Days of Caesar: Pentecostalism and Political Theology (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2010).
Archer, The Gospel Revisited: Towards a Pentecostal Theology of Worship and Witness, 15.
Archer, 69.
Archer, 14.
Tapper, Canadian Pentecostals, the Trinity, and Contemporary Worship Music: The Things We Sing.
ccli is the largest copyright organization for Christian contemporary music around the world. Churches send in reports of what songs they use, and twice a year ccli release the results and distribute royalties to song owners.
Tapper, Canadian Pentecostals, the Trinity, and Contemporary Worship Music: The Things We Sing, 178.
Tapper, 177–83.
Tapper, 190.
Tapper, 183–87.
Tapper, 195.
Tapper, 196. Quote from Colin Gunton (2001).
Tapper, 199. Quote from Andrew Goodliff (2009).
Tapper, 200. Quote from Susan J. White (2012).
Tapper, 200.
Tapper, 159–61.
See discussion in Tapper, 25–45, 195–228; and Grey, ‘The Book of Isaiah and Pentecostal Worship’, 44. This result also accords with those of ethnomusicologist Daniel Thornton. Out of the top 25 songs on the Australian ccli list for 2019, the great majority address or reference the Second Person of the Trinity, a smaller group reference the Father, and only two songs mention the Holy Spirit. Daniel Thornton (2020) “What on earth are we singing? 2019 report gives snapshot,”
Cartledge, Testimony in the Spirit: Rescripting Ordinary Pentecostal Theology, 46.
Cartledge, 47.
Cartledge, 48.
Cartledge, 48.
By Israel Houghton, Adam Ranney, Micah Massey.
Rev 5:6, niv.
54 in Woodley, 36 in Mavuno, and 5 of them shared.
“My Superstar” from the song Superstar by Chris Adwar, may be the only real exception here.
Bell, Ritual: Perspectives and Dimensions, 70.
Poloma, Main Street Mystics: The Toronto Blessing and Reviving Pentecostalism, 54. Quote from Fernandez (1986).
Poloma, 54.
Anderson, An Introduction to Pentecostalism: Global Charismatic Christianity, 45–51.
See Allan Anderson’s discussion of typological, phenomenological, theological and historical approaches to the definition of Pentecostalism (all in one way or the other relating to charismatic gifts/ Holy Spirit) in Anderson, ‘Varieties, Taxonomies, and Definitions’; see also discussion in Chapter 2.
“Även om en av nycklarna till att förstå pentekostalismen ligger i läran om andedopet, är det bärande innehållet Jesuscentrerat. Det är en kristendomstyp som är tydligt präglad av den pietistiska fokuseringen på Jesus.” Josefsson, Liv och Över Nog: Den Tidiga Pingströrelsens Spiritualitet. Abundant Life: The Spirituality of the Early Pentecostal Movement in Sweden, 51, see also page 67–96.
The link between classical Pentecostalism and 18th-century revivalism has been noted by several scholars, for example Bundy, Visions of Apostolic Mission: Scandinavian Pentecostal Mission to 1935; Dayton, Theological Roots of Pentecostalism; Hollenweger, Pentecostalism: Origins and Developments Worldwide.
But see Yong, Spirit of Love: A Trinitarian Theology of Grace.
For example, James D.G. Dunn, Baptism in the Holy Spirit: A Re-Examination of the New Testament Teaching on the Gift of the Spirit in Relation to Pentecostalism Today (London: scm Press, 2010); Frank D. Macchia, The Spirit-Baptized Church: A Dogmatic Inquiry (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2020); Frank D. Macchia, Baptized in the Spirit: A Global Pentecostal Theology (Zondervan Academic, 2009); Max Turner, The Holy Spirit and Spiritual Gifts: Then and Now (Paternoster Press, 1996).
Fischer, ‘“The Spirit Helps Us in Our Weakness”: Charismatization of Worldwide Christianity and the Quest for an Appropriate Pneumatology with Focus on the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Tanzania’; Gifford, ‘The Primal Pentecostal Imagination’; Päivi Hasu, ‘Rescuing Zombies from the Hands of Witches: Pentecostal-Charismatic Christianity and Spiritual Warfare in the Plural Religious Setting of Coastal Tanzania’, Svensk Missionstidskrift 97, no. 3 (2009): 417–40; Jörg Haustein, ‘Embodying the Spirit(s): Pentecostal Demonology and Deliverance Discourse in Ethiopia’, Ethnos 76, no. 4 (2011): 534–52; Kavulla, ‘“Our Enemies Are God’s Enemies”: The Religion and Politics of Bishop Margaret Wanjiru, mp’.
Cartledge, Mediation of the Spirit: Interventions in Practical Theology, 72–73, 110–12.
Cartledge, 82, see also pages 60–119.
Cartledge, 72.
Dayton, Theological Roots of Pentecostalism; see also: Anderson, An Introduction to Pentecostalism: Global Charismatic Christianity, and Archer, The Gospel Revisited: Towards a Pentecostal Theology of Worship and Witness.
Note that ‘King’ is one of the classic ‘offices of Christ’, the other being ‘Priest’ and ‘Prophet’. For a discussion on African Christology and Christ as Ancestor in relation to the classic offices, see Nyamiti, Christ as Our Ancestor: Christology from an African Perspective. On African Christology, see also: Bediako, Jesus and the Gospel in Africa: History and Experience; Clarke, African Christology: Jesus in Post-Missionary African Christianity; Clifton R. Clarke, ‘Jesus in the Theology and Experience of African Pentecostals’, in Pentecostal Theology in Africa, ed. Clifton R. Clarke (Eugene, OR: Pickwick Publications, 2014); and Mugambi and Magesa, Jesus in African Christianity: Experimentation and Diversity in African Christology.
Attributed to Martin Luther. Public domain.
By Joseph Mohr, Freeman Young. Public domain.
By Joseph Mohr, Freeman Young. Public domain.
By William Chatterton Dix. Public domain.
By Stuart Townend.
By Stuart Townend.
Aulén has described this as the classic Christian view of atonement. The sung corpora differs from Aulén’s Christus Victor model, however, in that they say nothing of Christ paying a ‘ransom’ to the Devil, and neither have I ever heard anyone in pentecostal circles say anything that points in that direction. I find it much more likely that the background of this expression is the sacrificial system of the Old Testament, and the interpretation of Christ in Hebrews, chapters 5–10, than the Roman slave system that Aulén draws on when explaining Christ as ‘the ransom’. Gustaf Aulén, Den Kristna Försoningstanken (Stockholm: Svenska Kyrkans Diakonistyrelses Bokförlag, 1930); Gustaf Aulén, Christus Victor: An Historical Study of the Three Main Types of the Idea of the Atonement. Transl. by A.G. Herbert (London, 1931). For a discussion on Christ as Victor in relation to pentecostal eschatology, see Frank D. Macchia, ‘Jesus Is Victor: The Eschatology of the Blumhardts with Implications for Pentecostal Eschatologies’, in Perspectives in Pentecostal Eschatologies: World without End, ed. Peter Althouse and Robby Waddell (Eugene, OR: Pickwick Publications, 2010).
By Joseph Vogels.
By Joseph Vogels.
Rev. 5:1–14, 19:11–16, 22:16.
Isa. 9:6–7, 11:1–16, and many others.
By Lenny LeBlanc.
By Lenny LeBlanc.
By Mike Chapman and Holly Knight (1988), performed by Bonnie Tyler and Tina Turner, adapted by Mavuno.
By Charles Jenkins.
Compare what Mark Evans refers to as “the Hillsong sound” communicating a “bright, contemporary, victorious Christianity.” Evans, ‘Hillsong Abroad: Tracing the Songlines of Contemporary Pentecostal Music’, 182–83.
By Keith Getty and Stuart Townend.
By Joseph Vogels.
Compare discussion on the role of spiritual warfare among Pentecostals in Zanzibar, Hans Olsson, Jesus for Zanzibar: Narratives of Pentecostal (Non-)Belonging, Islam, and Nation (Brill, 2019).
Ps. 18:2, niv.
Heb. 6:19. Other relevant texts include; Ps. 18, 19, 27, 28, 40; 1 Sam. 2:2, 2 Sam. 22:2–3, 32, 47; Mk. 6; Lk. 6:47–49; Rom. 9:32–33; 1 Cor. 10:4, 15:52; 1 Thess. 4:13–18; Rev. 7.
By Rick Founds.
By Keith Getty and Stuart Townend.
Aulén, Den Kristna Försoningstanken; Aulén, Christus Victor: An Historical Study of the Three Main Types of the Idea of the Atonement. Author. Transl. by A.G. Herbert. See also fn. 163, above.
See discussion in Bell, Ritual: Perspectives and Dimensions, 68–70. On the role of language in ritual, see also Grimes, The Craft of Ritual Studies, 274–79.
Gifford, ‘The Ritual Use of the Bible in African Pentecostalism’. James K.A. Smith has instead applied speech act theory to glossolalia, Smith, Thinking in Tongues: Pentecostal Contributions to Christian Philosophy, 139–50.
Bell, Ritual: Perspectives and Dimensions, 68. Emphasis in original.
Bell, 69. Emphasis in original.
Bell, 86.
Compare discussion on the “power of proclamation” in Wen Reagan, ‘Blessed to Be a Blessing: The Prosperity Gospel of Worship Music Superstar Israel Houghton’, in The Spirit of Praise: Music and Worship in Global Pentecostal-Charismatic Christianity, ed. Monique M. Ingalls and Amos Yong (University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 2015), 224.
Bell, Ritual: Perspectives and Dimensions, 69.