Study design and data collection

An online survey targeting African food processing companies in African countries was conveniently conducted via digital platforms. A structured, online-based questionnaire was developed for data collection, which was administered through Google Forms to ensure wide accessibility and ease of response. The questionnaire was pretested (N = 12 participants across 3 countries), yielding Cronbach’s α values of 0.78–0.89. Feedback obtained was useful in improving the tool and thereafter the questionnaire was circulated through various digital links (emails, LinkedIn, WhatsApp groups). Before the survey commenced, participants were informed of the research objectives and that the data collected from the survey would be utilised for research purposes. Furthermore, participants were guaranteed that their involvement would remain confidential, and they retained the right to withdraw from the study at any time they chose. No incentives were provided for participation in the survey. Eligible respondents needed to work in any African food processing company. The survey was open from 1 to 30 April 2025. A total of 194 responses from 15 African countries were received, and only questionnaires with all mandatory questions fully completed were included in the final analysis.

Questionnaire development

The developed questionnaire had 4 sections. Section 1 was the introduction of the study. Section 2 had questions that solicited general information about the company that included size, sector, ownership, target market and duration in which the company has been in existence. In addition, a question about any implemented Food Quality and Safety Management System was asked. Section 3 had questions related to the use of edible insects by the company. Question on whether the company was using edible insects or not was asked. Further questions explored the preferred types of edible insects for use, the preferred forms in which these insects would be incorporated (e.g. whole, powdered, or as extracts), and the specific food products in which respondents considered edible insects to be most suitable. Finally, Section 4 sought to explore the perceived opportunities, barriers and challenges in the use of edible insects as an ingredient or raw material in the food industry.

Data handling and statistical analysis

Data was downloaded from Google Drive server onto Microsoft Excel and visual inspection of the data was done. All data cleaning, transformation, and statistical analyses were conducted using R (version 4.4.2), a free and open-source environment for statistical computing and graphics. A combination of base R functions and specialised packages was employed to ensure efficient data handling and robust analysis. The dataset was examined for completeness, consistency, and plausibility. Missing values were addressed based on nature and proportion of absence. For categorical variables, missing data below 5% was addressed through listwise deletion. Variable names were standardised using the janitor package to ensure consistency in downstream analysis. Data were converted into appropriate formats, with categorical variables coded as factors and numeric variables centred or standardised as necessary. Variables of interest were recorded or grouped to facilitate analysis, including collapsing multi-category responses into meaningful binary or ordinal factors.

Table 1 presents a list of variables utilised in the dataset, accompanied by their respective descriptions and coding schemes. These variables encapsulate essential characteristics of companies engaged in edible insect value chains across various regions in Africa. The descriptions encompass organisational attributes (including ownership type, company size, and years of operation), as well as market awareness and utilisation of edible insects (EI), alongside preferences concerning the incorporation of EI into food products.

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Description of variables

Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2026; 10.1163/23524588-bja10418

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Model specification

Description of food companies respondents

The sample comprised of 194 companies from 15 African countries, and the descriptive frequencies indicate substantial variation across regions, ownership types, and other organisational characteristics as shown in Table 2. The regional distribution reveals that 45.9% of companies were located in Eastern and Central Africa, followed by 28.9% in Southern Africa and 25.3% in Western Africa. The associated p-value ($p=0.001$) indicated that the regional distribution was statistically significant and unlikely to have occurred by chance. The observed regional clustering, particularly in Eastern and Central Africa (45.9% Eastern/Central (${\chi }^{\mathrm{2}}$, $p=0.001$), is consistent with the established prevalence of insect farming initiatives in Kenya, Uganda, and Rwanda (Ayieko et al., 2016; Kamau et al., 2021; Mugendi et al., 2025; Ssepuuya et al., 2019).

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Descriptive statistics of the respondents

Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2026; 10.1163/23524588-bja10418

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Ownership structure is varied, with the largest share of companies (37.6%) categorised under sole proprietorship. Other ownership categories are represented to a lesser extent, ranging from 3.1% (community-based organisation) to 12.9% (government institution). The overall p-value for ownership ($p\mathrm{<}0.001$) indicates statistically significant differences in ownership composition across companies, which may reflect institutional, legal, or organisational diversity. More so, the ownership diversity, dominated by sole proprietorships, reflects a fragmented sector where innovation capacity may vary. Table 2 also indicates that firm size is more evenly distributed, with 37.6% of companies classified as small scale, 35.6% as large scale, and 26.8% as medium scale. However, the p-value ($p=0.146$) suggests that these differences are not statistically significant, implying that size variation in the sample may occur randomly or does not systematically relate to other variables of interest. Although firm size showed no significant distribution ($p=0.146$), the estimated odds ratio suggests that larger companies were less likely to adopt edible insects (OR = 0.14), as reported in Table 3. Previous studies note that smaller enterprises are often more agile and experimental (Trienekens, 2011) and this may result in small scale companies engage in edible insects more easily (Nancy et al., 2025). Small companies may face adoption barriers due to owner beliefs against edible insects, as cultural and psychological resistance limits acceptance and hinders scaling of insect rearing businesses (Abdullahi et al., 2021). More so, companies with regional or international scope may be more aligned to global sustainability trends, fostering edible insect adoption (Verbeke, 2015).

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Predictors of insects use for food companies in Africa

Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2026; 10.1163/23524588-bja10418

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Regarding years of operation, 46.9% of the companies fall into the longest-operating category (over 10 years), while 32% are in 1–5 years. The remaining companies are relatively evenly split between less than one year (10.3%) and 6–10 years (10.8%). The p-value ($p\mathrm{<}0.001$) indicates a significant association, suggesting that operational maturity may be unevenly distributed and potentially influential. Company descriptions are evenly split between regional and international (24.7% each), while 50.5% of companies were local companies.

The highly significant p-value ($p\mathrm{<}0.001$) suggests that these categorical differences are meaningful and may reflect different strategic orientations or core activities among companies. The target market variable is also well differentiated, with category 1 (local markets) accounting for 37.1% of companies, categories 2 (regional and international) and 3 (local, regional, and international) comprising roughly 30% each, and only 2.6% in category 4 (international only). The statistical significance of this distribution ($p\mathrm{<}0.001$) indicates meaningful heterogeneity in market orientation across the sample. A large majority of companies (84%) reported being aware of edible insect (EI) ingredients, compared to 16% that were not. This difference is highly significant ($p\mathrm{<}0.001$), indicating that awareness is widespread and may be a critical precursor to adoption (Florenca et al., 2022; Kim et al., 2019). In terms of MGTS (management systems) hindrance, 79.4% of companies reported no hindrance, while 20.6% did. The p-value ($p\mathrm{<}0.001$) demonstrates a statistically significant split, suggesting that these constraints are present for a minority but may have tangible implications.

The utilisation of edible insects (EI) is reported by 67% of companies which would use the EI in new products and 33% in existing products. The p-value ($p\mathrm{<}0.001$) indicated that this difference is statistically significant and implies variation in the way companies integrate EI ingredients into their operations. Regarding the use of insects as alternative or new ingredients, 63.4% of companies would use EI as a new ingredient, while 36.6% would use them as an alternative ingredient. The p-value ($p\mathrm{<}0.001$) confirms a statistically meaningful distinction, highlighting differences in innovation orientation or diversification strategies. The distribution of companies across most categorical variables is statistically significant, suggesting structured heterogeneity in regional location, ownership, operational history, market orientation, awareness, and engagement with edible insect innovations.

Predictors of insects use for food companies in Africa

The logistic regression model examined the probability of companies utilising edible insect (EI) ingredients, incorporating several organisational and contextual predictors shown in Table 3. The intercept, representing the baseline odds of adopting EI ingredients for companies within the reference categories across all predictors, is not statistically significant (OR = 0.27, $p=0.316$). This suggested the absence of a pronounced underlying inclination toward adoption when all covariates are maintained at their reference levels. The region where the company is located was significantly correlated with the utilisation of EI ingredients. Companies situated in Region 2 (Western Africa) exhibited markedly lower odds of incorporating EI ingredients compared to those in the reference region (Eastern and Central Africa) (OR = 0.16, $p=0.010$), indicating regional disparities in adoption rates and potentially due to lower entomophagy integration (Kelemu et al., 2015). Region 3 (Southern Africa) also demonstrated a negative association, albeit marginally significant (OR = 0.32, $p=0.089$), suggesting a potential, though less definitive, regional effect. Firm size appears to significantly influence the likelihood of EI ingredient adoption. Both Size 2 (medium scale) and Size 3 (large scale) companies are considerably less likely to utilise EI ingredients relative to the smallest size category, possibly reflecting regulatory rigidity or reputational caution by large to medium scale companies. The odds of adoption decreased by approximately 88% for Size 2 (OR = 0.12, $p=0.025$) and by 86% for Size 3 (OR = 0.14, $p=0.041$), indicating a clear negative relationship between larger firm size and the adoption of edible insect ingredients.

The results in Table 3 also reveal that years of operation do not significantly impact the use of EI by an industry. None of the categories (Years 2, 3, or 4) exhibited statistically significant differences in comparison to the reference group, with the associated odds ratios fluctuating around 1 (e.g. OR = 0.64 for 1-5 years, OR = 1.77 for 6-10 years, and OR = 1.08 for above 10 years). This observation suggested that the duration of a firm’s operation was not a salient predictor of EI ingredient usage. Company description demonstrated a positive and significant association with adoption. Companies categorised under Description 2 (regional) were over four times more likely to utilise EI ingredients (OR = 4.16, $p=0.074$), while those under Description 3 (International) exhibited more than five times higher odds (OR = 5.45, $p=0.049$). Although the former is marginally significant, the latter surpasses the conventional 5% threshold, suggesting that the nature of the company’s stated mission or business focus may correlate with a greater openness to insect-based innovations. These findings corroborate the notion that international companies typically function in areas with well-defined regulatory systems, improved access to funding, cutting-edge technologies, and cohesive supply chains, which empower them to invest with assurance in the production and innovation of insect-based food. This difference elucidates the reason why international companies dominate the insect protein sector in contrast to many local African enterprises (Tanga and Kababu, 2023).

Awareness of edible insects emerged as a robust predictor of adoption

Companies classified as aware (Awareness 1) were over ten times more likely to incorporate EI ingredients compared to those lacking awareness (OR = 10.65, $p=0.035$). This finding is statistically significant, underscoring the critical role of informational exposure and knowledge in fostering adoption. Moreso, this result corroborates previous findings linking knowledge and openness to novel foods (Tan et al., 2016). The variable MGTS hinderance (representing management systems) exhibited a negative but non-significant association (OR = 0.48, $p=0.312$), suggesting that presence or absence of management systems may diminish the likelihood of adoption; however, the evidence remains statistically inconclusive. In addition, the EI application (i.e. direct applications of edible insects in the firm’s products or as new products) demonstrated a statistically significant negative effect. Companies who would use EI in new products were approximately 66% less likely to incorporate EI ingredients compared to the reference group (existing products) (OR = 0.34, $p=0.035$). This trend may indicate that EI applications are more frequently observed in companies already utilising such ingredients, rather than functioning as a catalyst for adoption. Whether the EI would be used as alternative or new ingredients (Alt/ new) was significantly correlated with a reduced likelihood of employing EI ingredients. Companies that would use the EI ingredients as an alternative were 80% less likely to utilise edible insect ingredients (OR = 0.20, $p=0.003$), suggesting that innovation in other domains may supplant insect-based innovation or reflect a strategic divergence in product development. Region, firm size, company type, awareness, and the use of EI as an alternative ingredient served as critical predictors of edible insect utilisation among food companies. These findings underscore both structural and perceptual factors influencing adoption, with implications for targeted policy measures and awareness-raising interventions (Bánáti et al., 2024; Guiné et al., 2023, 2024; Kusia et al., 2021; Rehman and Ogrinc, 2024).

Company-level preferences for edible insect ingredients in food production

The results indicated a distinct hierarchy in company-level preferences for specific edible insect ingredients shown in Figure 1. Grasshoppers are the most preferred at 37%, followed closely by crickets (35%), termites (33%) and locusts (30%). These top four insect types appeared to occupy a dominant position in the food production sector, suggesting that they were perceived as more acceptable or suitable, potentially due to factors such as availability, protein content, consumer familiarity, or ease of processing. This finding supports previous studies that found these species as the widely consumed and accepted in African diets (Babarinde et al., 2024; Ishara et al., 2022; Macheka et al., 2022; Omuse et al., 2024; Weru et al., 2021). The mopane worm follows with a notable decline in preference (approximately 18%), indicating a secondary tier of interest. Similarly, mealworms and black soldier fly larvae are favoured by around 12 companies each, which may reflect an emerging but less widespread interest, potentially constrained by regulatory, cultural, or supply-chain considerations. At the lower end of the spectrum, bees and earthworms were least preferred at 1%. Their minimal preference suggests limited perceived applicability in mainstream food production, potentially due to unfamiliarity, restricted production systems, or market resistance. The concentration of preferences around grasshoppers, crickets, termites, and locusts suggests that these insects have attained a level of normative acceptability and operational feasibility in food production agreeing with (van Huis et al., 2013) who indicated that grasshoppers, crickets, termites, locusts were culturally accepted. The operational feasibility for mass production, and their integration within existing food safety frameworks could have contributed to their preferences. Their popularity may also reflect alignment with existing food safety regulations and consumer acceptability thresholds. By contrast, the lower preference for other species could indicate untapped potential or the need for more targeted education, investment in farming systems, or product development. Lower acceptance of insects such as the mopane worm may stem from their geographically limited availability, making them less familiar to populations outside their native regions compared to more widely known insects. Van Huis (2020) discuss how geographic availability strongly influences familiarity and acceptance of specific edible insects, explaining regional differences in consumption patterns.

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Companies preferred edible insects.

Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2026; 10.1163/23524588-bja10418

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The study further established if the insect choice is influenced by region as shown in Table 4. The results of the chi-square test provide valuable insights into the influence of regional differences on firm-level preferences for edible insect ingredients utilised in food production. The findings indicate that, for certain insect types, preferences exhibit significant variation by region, while for others, regional differences appear minimal or statistically insignificant. Crickets demonstrate a strong and statistically significant regional effect (${\chi }^{\mathrm{2}}=$ 17.615, $p\mathrm{<}0.001$), suggesting considerable variability in firm preferences for the use of crickets across different regions. This variation may reflect localised farming practices, consumer familiarity, or disparities in market development and value chain infrastructure (Sengendo et al., 2025). A similarly significant pattern is observed for termites (${\chi }^{\mathrm{2}}=$ 6.251, $p=0.044$), implying that their utilisation is also influenced by region-specific factors, potentially including cultural acceptability or availability connected to natural habitats (Fombong and Kinyuru, 2018; Makhado et al., 2015) mopane worm exhibits the most pronounced regional variation (${\chi }^{\mathrm{2}}=$ 70.670, $p\mathrm{<}0.001$). This robust result is not surprising given the mopane worm’s ecological distribution and cultural integration in certain areas of Southern Africa (Illgner and Nel, 2000; Meltus et al., 2024). Companies operating in regions where the mopane worm is traditionally consumed are significantly more likely to incorporate it into food production, reinforcing the notion that ecological familiarity and consumer acceptance serve as key drivers.

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Choice of edible insect influence by region

Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2026; 10.1163/23524588-bja10418

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Earthworms also display a marginally significant regional effect (${\chi }^{\mathrm{2}}=$ 5.980, $p=0.050$), indicating some geographic variation in preference, although the strength of this influence is comparatively limited. Further investigation may be warranted to determine whether this variation reflects emerging interest in specific contexts or methodological limitations related to sample size. In contrast, locusts (${\chi }^{\mathrm{2}}=$ 3.797, $p=0.150$), mealworms (${\chi }^{\mathrm{2}}=$ 0.379, $p=0.827$), grasshoppers (${\chi }^{\mathrm{2}}=$ 5.684, $p=0.058$), black soldier flies (${\chi }^{\mathrm{2}}=$ 3.357, $p=0.187$), and bees (${\chi }^{\mathrm{2}}=$ 2.384, $p=0.304$) exhibit no statistically significant regional differences in firm preferences.

Strong regional effects for termites, crickets, and mopane worms support the argument that cultural norms and environmental factors shape adoption (Ayieko et al., 2021). More so, species like mealworms and black soldier fly larvae showed uniform but low preference, likely due to limited farming systems or market exposure. These findings suggest species-specific promotion strategies may be necessary, particularly in regions where certain insects are not traditionally consumed or farmed. Collectively, the analysis underscores the critical role of regional context in shaping the adoption of specific insect species in food production, particularly for crickets, termites, mopane worms, and, to a lesser extent, earthworms. For policymakers and practitioners, the result implies that the efforts to promote insect-based food production should be attuned to regional conditions and traditions. Concurrently, the uniformity of preference for other species, such as mealworms and black soldier flies, may present opportunities for scaling production across wider geographic areas with fewer cultural or ecological constraints.

Form of edible insects’ supply

Figure 2 illustrates the preferred forms of edible insect (EI) supply among food companies, revealing distinct patterns in their engagement with insect-derived ingredients. The data indicates a pronounced preference for processed and refined insect products compared to raw or minimally processed forms. By-products and chitin emerged as the least favoured options, with 99.5% and 94.8% of companies, respectively, expressing no interest in these forms. This near-total rejection suggests that such materials are perceived as non-viable for food production, potentially due to limited applications, negative consumer perceptions, limited awareness or insufficient functional value in product formulation. Conversely, companies demonstrated greater receptivity to incorporating insect-based ingredients in processed formats. In addition, Figure 2 shows that insect meal is the preferred option, with 38.7% of respondents indicating a favourable response. Although this figure remains below half, it signifies an increasing acceptance within the industry, particularly for products that can serve as protein fortifiers or integrate seamlessly into processed foods. Likewise, protein extracts (47.4%) and protein concentrates (39.2%) garner relatively high levels of interest, likely due to their consistency, ability to be incorporated into recipes without visible insect content, and capacity to fulfil functional requirements for nutritional enhancement (Kinyuru and Ndung’u, 2024). By contrast, insect oil attracts less interest, with only 18.6% of companies expressing a preference for this form. This may reflect limited awareness or experience regarding its application in food systems, or it could signal unresolved concerns surrounding taste, stability, or processing suitability.

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Preferred form of EI supply to companies.

Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2026; 10.1163/23524588-bja10418

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Whole insects also rank among the least preferred options, with only 23.2% of companies indicating interest, while a substantial majority (76.8%) reject them. This trend likely reflects widespread apprehensions regarding consumer acceptance, as whole insects are more closely associated with traditional or niche markets and may not align with contemporary processed food products. These findings suggest that for edible insects to achieve broader acceptance within the food industry, they must be supplied in forms that conform to established food processing practices and consumer expectations. This is consistent with consumer studies indicating aversion to visible insect parts (Hartmann and Siegrist, 2016). Companies seek functional, neutral, and versatile ingredients to integrate into mainstream products, reducing risks associated with consumer rejection. In addition, the findings reinforce the need to support insect processing infrastructure and technology to enable incorporation of refined, safe, and standardised insect ingredients into formal food systems (Kozlu et al., 2024). Innovation should thus focus on product invisibility and functional versatility.

Food Safety Management systems and their influence on use of edible insects’ ingredients

Figure 3 illustrates the percentage of food companies employing various food safety and quality management systems. The Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) system is the most widely adopted, utilised by 55.2% of companies, followed closely by Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs) at 51%. These two systems are fundamental in ensuring food safety and imply that a higher proportion of companies prioritise basic regulatory compliance. ISO 22000, ISO 9001, and FSSC 22000 exhibit moderate adoption rates of 31.4, 27.3 and 25.3%, respectively, indicating that a subset of companies is investing in more formalised and internationally recognised standards. Notably, 18.6% of companies report operating without any formal management system, raising concerns regarding standardisation and risk control. A minimal percentage of companies utilise BRC Global Standards (5.2%) or Halal certification (1%), suggesting limited engagement with more specialised or niche certification schemes.

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Food safety management systems implemented by the food companies.

Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2026; 10.1163/23524588-bja10418

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The logistic regression results presented in Table 5 examine the association between the adoption of food safety management systems and the likelihood that a firm utilises edible insects in food production. Among the predictors, GMPs is the only statistically significant variable ($p=0.005$), with an odd ratio of 0.18, indicating that companies adhering to GMPs are significantly less likely to incorporate edible insects in their production processes. This finding may reflect a more conservative approach to novel ingredients among companies that prioritise fundamental manufacturing hygiene. Moreso, this echoes prior food safety concerns about integrating insects into regulated supply chains (Meijer et al., 2025; Murefu et al., 2019). While exhibiting an elevated odds ratio of 2.72, suggesting a potentially positive relationship with insect utilisation, this result is not statistically significant ($p=0.116$). All other predictors, including ISO standards, BRC Global Standards (BRC GS), and Halal certification, do not demonstrate significant effects. Notably, the “Without” category (OR = 2.13, $p=0.258$) also lacks statistical significance; however, it suggests that companies without formal systems may be more experimental or less constrained by certification requirements. In summary, food companies possessing GMP certification appear significantly less likely to utilise edible insects, while no other food safety systems exhibit a significant association. This suggests that risk aversion or regulatory conservatism inherent in food safety management systems may inhibit the adoption of alternative protein sources, such as insects. There is therefore the need to relook at regulatory frameworks to have them support EI integration in mainstream food processing operations such that the regulations support EI and not be a hinderance to adoption (Kinyuru and Ndung’u, 2022).

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Predicting use of edible insects based on food safety management system

Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2026; 10.1163/23524588-bja10418

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Constraints for using EI as ingredients by companies

The study investigated the relationship between various reasons that would deter the likelihood of companies utilising edible insect (EI) ingredients. Table 6 shows the results. The intercept exhibited an odds ratio of 0.26 and is statistically significant ($p\mathrm{<}0.001$), representing the baseline odds of utilising EI ingredients when none of the identified constraints are present. This low value suggests that, on average, companies without any of the specified concerns are unlikely to adopt edible insects; however, the intercept alone possesses limited interpretive value. Among the individual predictors, food safety concerns demonstrated a significant negative association with the utilisation of EI ingredients. Companies that report food safety concerns are 80% less likely to use EI ingredients (OR = 0.20, $p=0.045$), indicating that this factor constitutes a primary barrier to adoption. Processing and formulation issues also exhibited a strong negative association (OR = 0.31); although the result is marginally significant ($p=0.083$), it suggests that technical challenges in incorporating insect-based ingredients can meaningfully hinder adoption. These findings corroborate concerns about taste, formulation, and contamination widely reported in insect-food literature (Imathiu, 2020; Murefu et al., 2019).

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Reasons for non-use of EI

Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2026; 10.1163/23524588-bja10418

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On the other hand, companies already using EI report more supply issues (post-adoption) (OR = 4.00, $p=0.005$). This somewhat counterintuitive result may reflect that companies already employing EI ingredients are more exposed to and cognizant of supply-related difficulties, rather than these issues obstructing initial uptake. A similar trend is observed with regulatory and legal restrictions, where the odds of utilisation are nearly three times higher among companies reporting this barrier (OR = 2.95, $p=0.085$). Although not statistically significant at the 5% level, this finding may indicate that regulatory issues become more prominent once companies have already adopted EI practices. Other variables, such as brand perception risks, lack of market demand, consumer acceptance concerns, religious or cultural objections, and cost considerations, do not exhibit significant associations. Their odds ratios predominantly fall below 1, suggesting negative associations; however, the high p-values indicate that these effects are not robust within this sample. Notably, cost considerations yield an odds ratio near zero, with an undefined standard error and a p-value approaching 1, suggesting estimation challenges, likely due to sparse or unbalanced data in this category. Overall, the findings underscore food safety concerns and processing difficulties as significant barriers to adoption, while also revealing that certain challenges, particularly in regulation and supply chains, may be more salient among companies already engaged in the utilisation of edible insects. The model’s moderate explanatory power indicates the necessity to incorporate additional variables, such as firm size, region, market orientation, or innovation capacity, to comprehensively understand the drivers and barriers to the adoption of EI ingredients.

Willingness to use edible insects using the structural equation model

Willingness to use edible insects (USEEI) in the food industry was regressed on five predictor variables: perceived benefits (BFT), perceived barriers (BAR), subjective norms (SNM), attitude (ATT) and perceived behavioural control (PBC). In addition, firm-level characteristics were included in the model to examine how both psychological factors and company attributes influence the adoption of edible insect ingredients (Table 7).

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Psychological and company characteristics influencing use of insects

Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2026; 10.1163/23524588-bja10418

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To evaluate model adequacy, several alternative fit indices were considered. The Comparative Fit Index (CFI) was 0.928, and the Tucker–Lewis Index (TLI) was 0.910. Both exceeded the conventional threshold of 0.90, indicating a good fit between the specified model and the observed data. The root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) was 0.068, with a 90% confidence interval ranging from 0.055 to 0.080. Although the upper bound reaches the threshold for mediocre fit, the estimate remains within the commonly accepted range, supporting an interpretation of moderate model fit. The p-value for RMSEA ≤0.05 was 0.011, while the p-value for RMSEA ≥0.08 was 0.056. The standardised root mean square residual (SRMR) was 0.058, comfortably below the 0.08 cut-off, suggesting good residual fit. Together, the CFI, TLI, RMSEA and SRMR indicate that the model achieves adequate to good fit with the observed data, despite the significant chi-square statistic.

BFT exhibited a positive and statistically significant effect on USEEI (standardised estimate = 0.525, $p\mathrm{<}0.001$). This finding indicates that individuals who recognise clear advantages associated with edible insect innovations are more inclined to adopt them. The strength and significance of this relationship underscore its role as a key determinant of uptake behaviour. Perceived Barriers (BAR) demonstrated a negative and significant effect (standardised estimate =–0.277, $p=0.022$). This suggests that individuals who perceive greater barriers such as economic, social, or infrastructural constraints, are less likely to utilise the innovations. Addressing these barriers may be crucial for promoting broader adoption. Subjective Norms (SNM) exhibited a non-significant effect on USEEI (standardised estimate =–0.115, p = 0.731). This implies that perceived social expectations or pressure from others do not significantly influence the adoption of edible insect innovations within this sample.

ATT also emerged as not a significant predictor (standardised estimate = 0.222, $p=0.621$), despite indicating a positive direction. This result suggests that although individuals may express favourable attitudes, these do not necessarily translate into actual usage behaviour, potentially due to contextual constraints or competing influences. PBC did not significantly predict USEEI either (standardised estimate =–0.127, $p=0.594$). This suggests that individuals’ sense of agency or capacity to engage with edible insect innovations does not consistently influence their behaviour in this context. Awareness (AWR) had a positive and statistically significant effect (standardised estimate = 0.340, p = 0.040). This finding indicates that greater awareness of edible insect innovations is associated with a higher likelihood of use, reinforcing the importance of information dissemination and exposure.

Region exhibited a significant negative effect on USEEI (standardised estimate =–0.311, $p=0.006$). This suggests that respondents from certain regions are less likely to adopt the innovations, potentially due to differing environmental conditions, infrastructure, or local market dynamics (Ndung’u et al., 2025). Enterprise size (size) showed a non-significant effect (standardised estimate =–0.077, $p=0.607$). This indicates that the size of the respondent’s business does not serve as a meaningful predictor of edible insect innovation use. Years of Operation (YROP) also exhibited no significant effect (standardised estimate =–0.067, $p=0.671$). This implies that the duration of time a respondent has operated in the sector does not influence the likelihood of adoption.