Abstract
Exorcism is a manâs job. Christian churches legislate on who can carry out an exorcism, and independent charismatic healers tend overwhelmingly to be men. Yet there are exceptions. Ancient Syriac hagiography includes accounts of female saints who can cast out and repel demons, and the early 2010s saw the rise of the so-called âteenage exorcistsâ in the USA, Brynne Larson and Tess and Savannah Scherkenback. In this article we examine the ancient stories of holy women casting out demons and the media reports and Brynne Larsonâs book on the ministry she and her friends carried out. We find that while female exorcists challenge the boundaries of gender in religious identity, they nonetheless reflect a form of idealized femininity in a manâs world.
1 âThe Power of Christâ
âThe power of Christ compels you!â is probably the most famous line from the Hollywood film The Exorcist (1973). During the Catholic exorcism ritual depicted in the film, the priest Father Merrin uses supernatural power (âthe power of Christâ) to defeat the demon Pazuzu, who has taken possession of 12-year-old Regan MacNeil. The horror movie reflects a power dynamic at the heart of the religious practice of Roman Catholic exorcism: a priest, who according to canon law must be male, opposes the supernatural demon, who is also usually ascribed male characteristics, and performs a ritual act to free a female victim.1 The distribution of roles is very clearly defined, with the male in the active part as the authority figure with access to divine powers in order to conquer demonic adversaries and the female as a passive subject possessed by supernatural forces and liberated in the rite of exorcism through the active intervention of the exorcist. Guidelines for the exorcism of women were laid down as early as 1614 in the Rituale Romanum, which states: âWhen he [the exorcist] performs the exorcism on a woman, he should always have honourable persons with him, which hold the possessed woman when she is plagued by the devil.â The exorcism of women was thus given special attention in the first official guidelines for exorcism, perhaps reflecting contemporary concerns about potential abuse, but nonetheless suggesting physical restraint â by a group of men â of the female on whom the exorcism is to be performed.
The hierarchy of the sexes is not unique to Roman Catholicism, rather is also evident in ancient Christian exorcism and in contemporary evangelical deliverance ministries. Thus, it is perhaps surprising to learn of female exorcists, women and girls, with the power to cast out demons. In this article we will present and analyse examples of women who conduct exorcisms, certain female saints of ancient hagiography and the âteenage exorcistsâ who shot to fame in 2012. These are the exceptions that demonstrate the rule: exorcism is a manâs job.
2 A Manâs Job
According to the dominant narrative, Jesus cast out demons, gave the authority to do so to his disciples and the apostles, and they handed this authority on to priests: âJesus performed exorcisms and from him the Church has received the power and office of exorcizing.â (Catechism of the Catholic Church §â¯1673). The Christian (especially the Roman Catholic) practice of exorcism is fundamentally reserved for clergy.2 Because of their ability to identify demonic possession, exorcists are credited with a special ability called âthe gift of the discernment of spirits.â Following canon law, an exorcist is selected for this activity by the bishop because of his special piety, knowledge, prudence, and impeccable conduct. During the ritual, the exorcist has the task of communicating with the demon, which is assumed to be male and is believed to be in the body of the possessed, who are often but not exclusively female.3 The exorcist commands the demon to leave the personâs body or causes the demon to be exorcised through prayer. Various Christian symbols and ritual objects such as the crucifix, incense, holy water, bells, holy books, and vestments are used during the exorcism, which usually takes place in churches in small, select groups. The exorcist occupies a clear position of power over the possessed.
Exorcism is also a practice in certain evangelical or charismatic groups, although there is a tendency to shun the term âexorcismâ and refer instead to âdeliverance ministry.â Those engaged in such ministry again tend to be male, though this is by no means regulated as it is in Catholicism. Any independent, charismatic figure, regardless of sex, may engage in the practice of âdeliverance.â Nevertheless, due to the cultural set-up of such groups, the ministry tends to be carried out by men.
At this point it is necessary to reflect on the use of the terms âsexâ and âgenderâ in religious contexts. The term âgender,â which originally comes from linguistics, describes cultural constructions in relation to social differences and roles, in contrast to the term âsexâ which is usually understood to imply a biological characteristic.4 The idea of âgenderâ can thus be used as an analytical category to examine the construction of normative gender roles and dynamics within religious discourse. Ancient religions such as Christianity arose in the context of patriarchal social structures; the resulting religious ideas, practices, and texts reflect, legitimise, and maintain androcentric social structures and traditional gender roles.5 Randi Warne points out that an in-depth critical reflection on religiously legitimised gender constructions was only stimulated by the gender-critical turn in the context of postcolonial and poststructuralist theory.6 She emphasises that gender-critical thinking must first be anchored in the researcherâs consciousness before gender constructions and dynamics can be analysed: âIt involves tremendous intellectual effort, and a good deal of practice, to decentre maleness as the human norm and ideal which informs our imagination.â7 This has meant that the heteronormative matrix in which current knowledge-production about religion is based has hardly been considered in religious studies research to date.
Nevertheless, gender aspects represent a central marker of religious identity. In religious discourse heteronormative values often reinforce the authority of male clergy, as women are classified within an androcentric and hierarchical power system and are precluded from positions of authority.8 Theological narratives, based to a certain extent on the Bible, lead to a dichotomous and hierarchical interpretation of the sexes, and behaviour deviating from the supposed norm is often devalued as âsin.â Female stereotypes such as the âwoman as seductressâ or the âignorant womanâ often shape religious discourse.9 Analysis of gender constructions in exorcism reveals stereotypes, prescribed roles, and underlying strategies of marginalisation.10 But what if the tables are turned? What if the demons obey commands issued by women?
3 Female Exorcists in Ancient Hagiography
In Late Antiquity there was a blossoming of writings about saints which are grouped under the umbrella term hagiography (hagios, saint; graphÄ, writing). These include female saints, who often undertake similar activities to their male counterparts. With the sources currently available, exorcisms conducted by female saints remain rare and are mentioned only in passing. Nevertheless, they reveal interesting aspects of gender and religious identity as understood by the monks who produced this literature. The texts comprise a mixture of theology and entertainment, and Agnes Smith Lewis, who found, edited, and translated a Syriac book of female saints, suggests that these stories would be read at meal times for their entertainment value.11 We begin with the prima inter pares of female saints, saint Mary, the Mother of God.
3.1 Mary Casts Out Demons from Important Women
In a text known under the Latin name Transitus Mariae12 we meet Mary following Jesusâs ascension, as she returns to Bethlehem where she receives visits from âthe daughters of kings, and daughters of the magnates of the nations and daughters of procurators and of rulers.â Mary answers the big question they all have: how she conceived without a man! She also provides them with literature(!) to take back with them to evangelise their home kingdoms. Many who come to her are suffering from a variety of diseases and ailments and Mary heals them. There are two women who are possessed, one mentioned briefly and one in more detail. The first is a woman from Beirut with a demon, and it is merely stated that Mary exorcises her at the same time as she cures a woman from Alexandria from leprosy. For the second exorcism there is scene and some dialogue:
And MalchÅ« came also to her, the daughter of Sabinus, the Procurator, in whom were two demons; one that tormented her by night; and the other that came upon her by day, and buffeted her; and she entreated the Lady Mary; and immediately when she had prayed over her, and had placed her hand upon her, and had spoken thus: âIn the name of my Master Who is in heaven, I adjure thee at this time concerning this soul, that she may be healed.â And straightway these demons came out of her, and they wailed, and cried out, saying, âWhat is there between us and thee, O Mother of God?â And these demons stood in the midst of the marketplace, near the door of the Lady Maryâs upper chamber. And they said in the presence of everybody, âThou and the Son who was born of thee have disturbed Legion and his armies.â Then the Lady Mary rebuked them in the name of our Lord Jesus the Christ. And straightway they departed towards the sea, and fell into it and were choked [drowned].13
Mary is presented here as entirely in command of the situation, much like her son in the Gospels, but of course she casts out demons in his name14 and not of her own ability.15 The phrase âWhat is there between us and thee,â the name Legion, and the drowning of demons in the sea, are taken from the Gospels.16 One difference to Gospel accounts is that the dialogue occurs after the exorcism, as the demons themselves stand in the marketplace near Maryâs door. Mary âhealsâ the girl and only then ârebukesâ the demons.
3.2 Eugenia Casts out Demons from Men while Dressed as a Man
In a collection of exciting tales of female saints â a collection so valued as to have been written over a manuscript of the Gospels!17 â we find the story of Eugenia. In order to escape marriage, the educated 16-year-old daughter of Philip, Roman governor of Alexandria, secretly cuts her hair, changes into plain clothes, and lives as âEugeniusâ in a monastery, where she subsequently becomes abbot.18 Her healing powers are not the focus of the story, but are mentioned in passing:
Now whilst she was living such a life, there was given to her by means of the grace of God the gift of healing, so that she cast out demons from men by means of the sign of the cross of our Lord, and health was given from God by her hands to those who were sick and afflicted.19
âEugeniusâ is dressed as a man and acts like a man, and casts out demons from men with the sign of the cross. She âfakesâ a masculine identity, and in doing so has power over demons. The text offers no more detail on her exorcisms, though we might ask whether the demons, as supernatural beings, were unaware that they were being exorcised by a woman dressed as a man. In any event, Eugenia is a successful exorcist and healer while abbot of the monastery in which she is hiding. This story perhaps reflects the fantasies of ancient monks, who imagine the clandestine presence of chaste virgins within their order.20
3.3 Irene Expels a City Demon and Justa Repels Love-Demons
The same collection of Syriac lives of female saints includes the story of Princess âPenelopeâ (later Irene), who is locked up in a high tower from ages 6 to 12 for her protection. While in the tower she becomes a Christian following angelic visitations. When she comes of age for marriage (12!) she returns to the city with much pomp and encounters a demon, not a possessed person.
And when she came to enter by the door of her fatherâs palace, a certain vicious demon met her, and said to her, âWhat is there between me and thee, thou handmaid of Jesus? Get thee out of this city, for no Christian can dwell in it.â But the blessed Irene said to that demon, âWho are thou? and what is thy name?â The demon said, âNargium is our name. And I guard this city, and many people are mine. I am the first charioteer of the gods; and I rejoice in quarrels, and exult in slaughter. And I excite disputes, and I rejoice in the shedding of blood. I supply wizards, and enchain many by means of them. I am the father and the originator of all evils. I am the rock of adamant on which all the souls of the wicked shall be dashed. Now I have made known to thee my power and my courage. Therefore get thee away from the city, lest thou be angry, and I go to thy father, and ruin thee also.â Irene answered, âI say to thee, vile demon, and rabid imp, in the name of our Lord Jesus the Christ, it is not lawful for thee to be in this city, nor to ruin nor to hurt any one of its inhabitants. Therefore begone! lest I destroy thee in the name of Jesus.â But he, when he heard the glorious name of Jesus, fled in fear and trembling, and went out of the city astonished. And as he was going out, he approached the king and whispered in his ear, saying to him, âIf thou art mine, Licinius, be strong and of good courage; for thy daughter is mixed up with the error of the Christians.â And when he had said this, he went out of the city, shaking and howling.21
Again, the phrase âWhat is there between me and thee?â (Mark 5:7; cf. Mark 1:24) and the question as to the demonâs name (Mark 5:9) come from the Gospels. Irene banishes the demon âin the name of Jesus.â While not strictly an exorcism, Irene banishes the demon from the city and thus affords the inhabitants protection from it.
A young virgin called Justa repels a demon from herself in The Martyrdom of Cyprian, an epic poem by the Empress Eudocia Augusta, wife of Emperor Theodosius II. In this Greek poem, the magician Cyprian of Antioch is contracted by the wealthy Aglaidas to cast a spell on the beautiful Christian girl Justa, so that she will fall in love with him. Cyprian conjures an anonymous demon who claims to have been the top angel and to have split heaven in two and caused the fall of the angels, to have deceived Eve, to be responsible for murder, adultery, and idolatry, and to have convinced the Hebrews to crucify Jesus; thus he argues he is more than up to the task of bewitching a virgin (Aelia Eudocia, Martyrdom of Cyprian 1.29â51). Yet Justa repels the demon with the sign of the cross and the name of Christ:
[S]he quickly armed her body with the sign of God and immediately set the grotesque demon to flight by saying Christâs name. She completely routed the scoundrel.22
Martyrdom of Cyprian 1.93â96
The demon returns to Cyprian and says: âI saw the terrible sign and became afraidâ (Martyrdom of Cyprian 101). Cyprian then sends a second demon, Beliar, and Justa prays:
While she prayed these things, the demon, dejected with shame, fled because of her courage.
Martyrdom of Cyprian 1.132â133
Beliar then returns to Cyprian and says: âThe sign, which I saw, conquered me with its power â it is entirely horrible, overwhelming, unbearableâ (Martyrdom of Cyprian 1.137â138). So Cyprian conjures Satan himself who approaches Justa in the guise of a young girl (Martyrdom of Cyprian 1.139â150). Satan almost succeeds in tricking Justa:
But the moment she perceived the crafty enemyâs deceit, she immediately turned her thoughts to prayer, signed her body with the cross, issued a call from her mouth, and cast that guilty oppressive thing out of her house.
Martyrdom of Cyprian 1.169â172
Brian Sowers observes, âJusta plays a more active role in this exorcism than in the previous two. While still relying on the sign of the cross and prayer, she speaks directly to Satan, and issues commands, which he obeys.â23 Satan too returns to Cyprian and says: âI cannot relate how great a sign I saw. Trembling terribly, I turned tail and ran away. [â¦] When I saw the sign of the cross of the crucified Christ, I turned and fledâ (Martyrdom of Cyprian 1.184â185, 191â192). Then Cyprian arms himself with the sign of the cross, calls upon Christ to banish Satan (Martyrdom of Cyprian 1.213â218), and reports to the local priest:
âTonight, against a holy girl I sent wicked demons to ensnare her strong-minded good sense with deceptive bonds. When she perceived them, through prayer and the sign of Christ she forcefully defeated them.â
Martyrdom of Cyprian 1.232â236
Thus in the case of Justa in the Martyrdom of Cyprian, it is the sign of the cross and prayer that is effective in repelling demons, though no exorcism is conducted because the demons are on the loose and fail to possess.24
4 The Teenage Exorcists
In 2012 âthe teenage exorcistsâ shot to fame in the media. The televangelist and exorcist Bob Larson began to work with his daughter Brynne and her friends Tess and Savannah Scherkenback in Scottsdale, Arizona. The group was the subject of several media reports.25 Brynne Larson is clearly the dominant figure of the three26 and published a book called The Dark Side of the Supernatural in 2015 with a foreword written by the Scherkenback sisters.27 On Brynneâs engaging in exorcism, ABC News reports: âLarsonâs wife said she was reluctant to let their daughter, Brynne, do it. But Bob Larson believes it is a good lesson for her.â28 As Brynne herself writes in her book: âTess, Savannah, and I have a special skill set certainly not normally associated with teenagers. We know how to cast out demons.â29
4.1 Femininity
Bob Larson dresses very much as a Roman Catholic priest and employs crucifixes and an aspergillum (for sprinkling Holy Water) in the Roman Catholic style. Brynne mentions anointing with oil.30 He also uses a Bible as a prop in his exorcisms, an element more associated with evangelicalism. The three girls however do not adopt Roman Catholic dress, rather are very much made for TV,31 with styled hair, make-up, lipstick, jewellery, fashionable clothes, and high-heeled shoes.32 Indeed, Brynne Larson was a regular contestant in beauty pageants.33 Their presentation is almost reminiscent of âCharlieâs Angels.â The girls met in taekwondo class,34 and Savannah explains: âWe can defend ourselves physically but we can also fight the spiritual battle that is being waged every day.â35 Taekwondo is apparently a valid aspect of Asian culture, for the girls are otherwise highly critical of âEastern religions.â36
On his TV show,37 Anderson Cooper claimed the girls appeared âcoachedâ and asked whether Bob Larson was pitching for a reality TV show, something which he denied,38 but on another occasion mentioned that he has had several offers.39 Brynne explains in her book:
A TV production company contacted us, because they wanted to film a reality TV show that featured Tess, Savannah, and me. After talking it over, we agreed. [â¦] We filmed for several weeks to create a pilot for the project.40
One could speculate as to whether (Bob) Larson sees their attractiveness, or indeed their youth, as key to media coverage. He comments only that, â[S]ometimes the people who come to them to be exorcised are a little taken aback when they see how young the girls are.â41 In her documentary for VICE, Charlet Duboc described the girls as âvirgins.â42 Although their virginity is never discussed with regard to the exorcism they conduct, it becomes clear from their own comments on the risks of demonic possession that sexual activity is something to be avoided.43
4.2 Possession
Brynne Larson explains that anyone possessed by a demon bears responsibility for their situation:
Satan canât harm a child of God unless individuals allow or open doors to give him that right. That right is what we call the legal right; it is some legitimate reason that allows Satan to interfere in your life.44
Brynne gives examples throughout her book of activities and interests that carry a risk of demonic possession. These include horoscopes,45 psychics/palm reading,46 automatic handwriting,47 Ouija,48 witchcraft,49 pentagrams,50 pornography,51 alcohol,52 substance abuse,53 witchdoctors/shamans,54 New Age,55 druids,56 âEastern Religionsâ57 including Hinduism58 and Buddhas,59 and Larson even takes critical note of âa large Native American display.â60 There is also a risk of demonic possession from âsexual stuff.â61
The girls and Bob Larson visit Ukraine where they say they identify a spiritual longing in post-Soviet society.62 They associate possession with childhood abuse (sexual and physical) for women and with drug abuse and prostitutes for men. Brynne explains:
Satan canât just randomly go into anybody he wants to. He has to have a legal right. And so what happens is, itâs like a little umbrella, and when you step out from under the umbrella of Godâs protection, when you sin, for example if you start doing drugs, youâre out from under that umbrella of Godâs protection, and Satanâs gotcha. So many times weâve dealt with men who have gone to prostitutes, and theyâve gotten their demons. Just like you can get a sexually transmitted disease, you can get a sexually transmitted demon. And sometimes itâs what happens to you. If you are abused, you canât help it, but because of that abuse, because of the feelings that it brings, because of the hate and the hurt and the shame, Satan can attack you because of that.63
Brynne explains âthe legal rightâ to the BBCâs Lucy Wallis: âWhat happens is when someone sins or does something, or somethingâs done to them that allows the demon to come into them, thatâs called the legal right or the reason that itâs there.â64 And she writes in her book:
The devilâs goal is to convince you to break Godâs commandments. Thankfully, you donât get a demon every time that you sin, but if he can get you involved in what God has expressly forbidden, you have consented to demonic oppression.65
One way in which the devil can gain a foothold in your life is through the Harry Potter and Twilight franchises.66 The United Kingdom in particular is a hotbed for âwitchcraftâ because of the popularity of J.K. Rowlingâs Harry Potter books.67 Tess explains:
The spells and things that youâre reading in the Harry Potter books, those arenât just something that are made up, those are actual spells. Those are things that came from witchcraft books.68
And Brynne adds:
Harry is using this magic for good. So here we have the dangerous idea that you can use this magic for good or bad, when in reality all magic is bad because youâre getting your power from Satan.69
In her book, she is aware of the irony in spending so much time discussing Harry Potter:
Occult and supernatural subject matter has wormed its way into popular books, movies and TV shows. Stay away from it, unless you are researching the subject matter or apologetically responding to it. Even then, be careful, lest you leave yourself more open to the devil than you realize.70
And later, she admits to having read the Twilight books:
In preparation for writing this book, I read the Twilight series. I did so carefully and from a research perspective.71
She does not explain how to read these books âcarefully and from a research perspective.â
Savannah outlines the dangers of the horoscope: âItâs witchcraft. Itâs evil. Itâs not of God.â72 Demons can be associated with animals: âThere are serpent demons, as well as bear, lion, wolf, eagle, dog, and cat demons.â73 And Brynne comments on the practice of automatic writing: âAutomatic writing gives you demons right there. Itâs where the demons take over and write for you.â74 In London they encourage a young man to destroy a Ouija board he had made in school.75
A common sign of possession is the sporadic dilution of the pupils and they can âseeâ the evil within someone by looking into their eyes.76 Brynne explains in her book:
When I look into a demon-possessed personâs eyes, I can see unadulterated hate. I can see the calculated coldness of evil. I can see a presence that would rip me limb from limb if it could. I see utter depravity. [â¦] When you look into a personâs eyes and a demon looks back at you, itâs an intense stare. [â¦] Because I have the Spirit of God in me, I can look right into that demonâs eyes, knowing that it sees Jesus Christ shining in me. I donât have to be afraid for a moment. I can face that pure evil and cast it out because of God.77
The girls are also aware of the âclassicâ signs of demonic possession from the Roman Catholic document Rituale Romanum, as ABC reports: âClassic signs of possession, the girls said, include when a possessed person starts speaking in tongues, reciting historical facts he wouldnât know otherwise, or having superhuman strength.â78 Yet these are not discussed in any detail and there is no indication that the great number of people supposedly possessed by demons exhibit such superhuman powers.
When asked how they know that people are not mentally ill, they explain that they find out about therapy, medication or medical history, in which case they refer them to a specialist. Yet as Savannah comments: âSometimes it is just demons.â79 Brynne explains in her book:
Tess, Savannah, and I are trained to deal with demons and inner healing, not mental health issues. And we donât attempt to do so. We never interfere with the treatment of a patient and we donât try to fix mental health problems. However, if there is a demon, the girls and I know what to do with that.80
4.3 Exorcism
Bob Larson and the girls refer to their activity as âexorcism,â despite the termâs Roman Catholic association. The three girls operate within Bobâs ministry and always under his direction: âWe do this under Dadâs supervision. We never do it alone,â comments Brynne.81 She explains in her book: âAnd the girls and I never cast out demons alone, we always have knowledgeable help nearby in the form of my dad and other experienced adults.â82
Brynne conducted her first exorcism in Africa when she was 13,83 while sisters Tess and Savannah performed their first deliverance on a 15-year-old friend after a sleepover.84 Brynne explains how when she was 16 her father helped the girls conduct an exorcism by talking them through it on the phone,85 though she later reports of an another exorcism the girls conducted while Bob Larson was not present.86
The girls conduct an exorcism in exactly the same way as Bob Larson does, brandishing a silver crucifix and a Bible, summoning the demon and addressing it directly, and casting it out, telling it to return to Hell. The person from whom the demon is cast out is usually supported or held by others, usually men, which Bob explains is for their own protection.87 Brynne recounts in her book:
Amanda is a tiny five-foot-one and she weighs almost nothing. She has a sweet disposition and looks like she would never hurt a fly. Yet it took five strong men to hold her back when the demons manifested. She had every demon you could imagine, and we fought for hours to win her freedom.88
The ethical questions of a small woman being held by âfive strong menâ for a lengthy period of time do not seem to register; the exorcism is paramount.
Brynne explains that an exorcism can take hours,89 and that it is not a âquick-fix,â âthere is no drive-thru deliverance,â and it may take several exorcisms before deliverance is achieved.90 In this regard she takes the same position as many modern Roman Catholic exorcists who explain that several drawn-out exorcisms can be required to cast out a demon, even though this is not the case for the exorcisms that Jesus conducts in the Gospels.91
The girls conduct an evangelical version of exorcism without any particular emphasis on their sex or gender. The only difference between them and Bob Larson is their youth and appearance, and of course the accepted hierarchy within the group in which Bob is the experienced leader. Brynne claims to have performed âcountless exorcisms,â92 and has no qualms about the ability of a woman to cast out demons: âAny Christian can learn to exercise his or her heavenly authority over Satan and his demons.â93
5 Conclusion
Although exorcism within a Christian context is almost universally restricted to male clergy â whether ordained priests or charismatic male figures â there remains a very small number of exceptions, women who have power over demons.
In ancient hagiographical literature, Mary casts out demons from two important women, Eugenia shaves her head, dresses like a man and casts demons out from men while disguised as the abbot of a monastery, and Irene and Justa repel city and love demons respectively. In all cases, virginity is a relevant factor, as Mary remains the perpetual virgin, Eugenia escapes from a potential marriage, Irene has just come of age to menstruate, and Justa repels demons sent on behalf of a male suitor.94
There is clearly a more marked role for physical attractiveness with âthe teenage exorcistsâ (and indeed the repeated use of the term âteenageâ in media reports!), as they style themselves as representatives of modern femininity. Virginity does not play an explicit role in their ministry, but it is clear that they represent a brand of Christianity which valorises innocence and â literally! â demonises sexual activity.95 Of course, âthe teenage exorcistsâ are now inevitably no longer teenagers, and already in 2015 they were attending colleges in different states, with Brynne in Virginia(!).96 Yet: âThey still minister[ed] individually and together when school commitments permit.â97
The female exorcists we encounter in both ancient and modern media may undertake a job confined to men and thus challenge the boundaries of gender in religious identity, but they nonetheless remain either the chaste fantasy of late antique monks or the attractive young assistants of the modern male healer.
Steve Wiggins, Nightmares with the Bible: The Good Book and Cinematic Demons, Horror and Scripture (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books / Fortress Academic, 2020), stresses again and again the trope of the female victim and the male liberator in horror films featuring demons and exorcism.
Tertullian, Praescr. 41.5, claims that among heretics there can be found women who teach, debate, exorcise, heal, and even perform baptisms. As Nicola Denzey Lewis, âWomen in Gnosticismâ, in Patterns of Womenâs Leadership in Early Christianity, eds. Joan E. Taylor and Ilaria L.E. Ramelli (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2021), 108â129, p. 108, observes: âThese groups were often designated âGnosticâ or âhereticalâ because women played the roles in them that they didâ [emphasis in original]. Kevin J. Madigan, âThe Meaning of Presbytera in Byzantine and Early Medieval Christianityâ, in Patterns of Womenâs Leadership in Early Christianity, eds. Joan E. Taylor and Ilaria L.E. Ramelli (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2021), 261â289, pp. 265â266, notes that at the time Tertullian was writing exorcism was not a task restricted to the clergy: âThus, one is forced to conclude that, at least here, it is not her non-ordained status which bars a woman from casting out demons and curing: it is her sexâ [emphasis in original].
According to Luke 8:2, Mary Magdalene had had seven demons expelled from her. Rhonda Burnette-Bletsch, ââ¯âTis Pity Sheâs (Still) a Whore: Mary Magdalene in The Chosen,â JSHJ 20, no. 3 (2022): 192â201,
But see Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (New York, NY: Routledge, 1990), who famously argues that âbiological sexâ is also a construct.
See Birgit Heller, âGender und Religion,â in Handbuch Religionswissenschaft: Religionen und ihre zentralen Themen, ed. Johann Figl (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2003), 758â769; eadem, âWeltreligionen und Geschlecht: Rollen, Bilder und Ordnungen der Geschlechter in vergleichend-systematischer Perspektive,â in Glaube und Geschlecht: Gender Reformation, ed. Eva Lavouvie (Vienna: Böhlau, 2019), 323â338; and eadem, âReligionen und Geschlecht. Präliminarien aus religionswissenschaftlicher Perspektive,â in Theologie von Frauen im Horizont des Genderdiskurses, eds. Christine Büchner and Nathalie Giele (Ostfildern: Grünewald, 2020), 17â35.
Randi R. Warne, âMaking the Gender-Critical Turn,â in Secular Theories on Religion: Current Perspectives, eds. Tim Jensen and Mikael Rothstein (Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum, 2000), 249â260; eadem, âGender and the Study of Religion,â MTSR 13, no. 1â4 (2001): 141â152,
Warne âMaking the Gender-Critical Turn,â 251.
Gunda Werner, âDie Kontinuität des Frauenbildes in römischen Dokumenten: Ein dogmatisches close reading,â in Anti-Genderismus in Europa: Allianzen von Rechtspopulismus und religiösem Fundamentalismus (Mobilisierung â Vernetzung â Transformation), eds. Sonja A. Strube, et al. (Bielefeld: transcript, 2021), 229â240,
Heller, âWeltreligionen und Geschlecht,â 329â331.
See Nicole M. Bauer, ââ¯âMulierem exorcizans â¦â: (Ohn)Macht und Gender im römisch-katholischen Exorzismus,â in Ledas Federlesen: Ansätze einer kritischen Genderforschung zu Religion, eds. Benedikt Bauer and Anna-Katharina Höpflinger, TeiResias Transdisziplinäre Forschungen zu Gender und Religion 1 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2024), 111â124.
Agnes Smith Lewis, Select Narratives of Holy Women, Studia Sinaitica 9 (London: C.J. Clay & Sons, 1900), vi: âPiously believed in at the time they were written, they exhibit just such a mingling of exciting adventure with godly precepts, as would make them a favourite means of edification to the monks of the Middle Ages. The thumb-marks which discolour the margins of the manuscript always at a similar part of each page, bear a silent testimony to their popularity, and we can imagine that they were just the sort of reading suitable for the Convent refectory.â
The manuscripts date from the 5th century, but the work itself may be as old as the 3rd century or the late 2nd century; cf. Stephen J. Shoemaker, âJesusâ Gnostic Mom: Mary of Nazareth and the âGnostic Maryâ Traditions,â in Mariam, the Magdalen, and the Mother, ed. and intro. Deirdre Good (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2005), 153â182, p. 162; Hans Förster, Transitus Mariae: Beiträge zur koptischen Ãberlieferung. Mit einer Edition von P.Vindob. K. 7589, Cambridge Add 1876 8 und Paris BN Copte 129 17â¯ff. 28 und 29, GCS, NF 14 (Neutestamentliche Apokryphen 2) (Berlin; New York, NY: De Gruyter, 2006),
Trans. Agnes Smith Lewis, Apocrypha Syriaca: The Protevangelium Jacobi and Transitus Mariae, Studia Sinaitica 11 (London: C.J. Clay & Sons, 1902), 33â35.
Epiphanius of Salamis (Panarion 30.10.3â7) describes how a count called Josephus of Tiberias managed to perform an exorcism using water, the sign of the cross, and the name of âJesus of Nazareth the cruficied one.â This story follows the tradition of the efficacy of Jesusâs name (Mark 9:38â40), despite contradictory claims that Jesusâs name alone does not suffice (Acts 19:13â16).
Ally Kateusz, Mary and Early Christian Women: Hidden Leadership (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019), 27â28,
Yet in Mark 5:1â13 the demons are first cast into pigs, which then run into the sea (lake) of Galilee to drown themselves. To which âseaâ the demons flee from Bethlehem is unclear!
Smith Lewis, Select Narratives, v.
We might note that there is no discussion of Eugeniusâ lack of facial hair or use of a fake beard(!). For the hesitation of ancient monks to accept beardless youths due to the attractive youthfulness and femininity of their faces, see Derek Krueger, âBetween Monks: Tales of Monastic Companionship in Early Byzantium,â Journal of the History of Sexuality 20, no. 1 (2011): 28â61, pp. 50â51,
Trans. Smith Lewis, Select Narratives, 15.
Cf. Smith Lewis, Select Narratives, vi: â[W]e find a maiden who runs away from home, leaving her parents plunged in inconsolable grief, to take refuge either in the desert or in a monastery of men.â
Trans. Smith Lewis, Select Narratives, 106â107.
All translations from Brian P. Sowers, In Her Own Words: The Life and Poetry of Aelia Eudocia, Hellenic Studies 80 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2020), 131â156.
Sowers, In Her Own Words, 76.
Cf. the discussion in Sowers, In Her Own Words, 74â77.
âTeen Girl Exorcism Squad: Three Arizona Girls Claim to Cast Out Demons,â ABC News, 5Â April 2012,
As she admits to Murdoch, âTeen Exorcistsâ: âI have to say, my special skill is probably the enforcer or the lead exorcist.â And Dan Murdoch comments: âBrynne normally leads from the front.â
Larson, The Dark Side.
âTeen Girl Exorcism Squad.â Larson, The Dark Side, 97, refers to her âyoungest sister,â so there is at least one other Larson daughter not involved in exorcism ministry.
Larson, The Dark Side, 14.
Larson, The Dark Side, 62.
Charlet Duboc, âTeenage Exorcists,â describes them as âStepford wives.â Dan Murdoch, âTeen Exorcists,â says: âThey remind me of a magicianâs glamorous assistants.â
Cf. Larson, The Dark Side, 24, 28, 29, 67, who mentions hair, make-up and high-heels.
âTeen Girl Exorcism Squad.â
Larson, The Dark Side, 19. Murdoch, âTeen Exorcists,â reports it as karate class.
Murdoch, âTeen Exorcists.â
Larson, The Dark Side, 82.
Cf. Larson, The Dark Side, 24â28, where Brynne describes their appearance on the show from her perspective.
Cooper, âAre Teen Exorcists for Real?â
âTeen Girl Exorcism Squadâ: âLarson is currently weighing several offers for new reality shows starring Brynne, Tess and Savannah.â
Larson, The Dark Side, 28.
âTeen Girl Exorcism Squad.â (Brynne) Larson, The Dark Side, 29, explains how they are often addressed concerning their youth.
Duboc, âTeenage Exorcists.â
Larson, The Dark Side, 149â150, takes aim at âcelebrities such as Beyonce and Katy Perryâ and comments: âStars often have more dysfunctional and demon-filled lives than anyone else.â
Larson, The Dark Side, 116. There is disagreement among modern Roman Catholic exorcists as to the degree to which the possessed person is at fault (cf. Bauer and Doole, âThe (Re)Invention of Biblical Exorcismâ, 11).
Larson, The Dark Side, 141.
Larson, The Dark Side, 14, 82, and 141.
Larson, The Dark Side, 51.
Larson, The Dark Side, 14 and 46.
Larson, The Dark Side, 82.
Larson, The Dark Side, 139.
Larson, The Dark Side, 56.
Larson, The Dark Side, 62.
Larson, The Dark Side, 75 and 92.
Larson, The Dark Side, 127.
Larson, The Dark Side, 135.
Larson, The Dark Side, 135.
Larson, The Dark Side, 82.
Larson, The Dark Side, 135.
Larson, The Dark Side, 134.
Larson, The Dark Side, 134.
In her book, Brynne goes into detail concerning sexual activity (Larson, The Dark Side, 146â152).
Duboc, âTeenage Exorcists.â Cf. Larson, The Dark Side, 69â83 and 90â92, where Brynne recounts her experience in Ukraine.
Duboc, âTeenage Exorcists.â For the umbrella metaphor, cf. Larson, The Dark Side, 116. Brynne also mentions âsexually transmitted demonsâ (Larson, The Dark Side, 148) and warns of the dangers of the novel 50 Shades of Grey (Larson, The Dark Side, 152).
Wallis, âTeen Exorcistsâ; Murdoch, âTeen Exorcists.â
Larson, The Dark Side, 40.
Duboc, âTeenage Exorcists.â Cf. Larson, The Dark Side, 31â32, for âthe occultâ in the media. Larson focuses particularly on Harry Potter (32â34, 101â111), and Twilight (36, 111, 120â125), but also mentions Supernatural (108). She quotes Pope Benedict XVI regarding the risks involved for children exposed to Harry Potter (106). Twilight âglorifies vampirismâ (111), which âperverts the atoning blood of Christâs sacrifice on the crossâ (121), God forbids the drinking of blood in the Bible (122â123, quoting Leviticus 17:10â14 and Acts 15:28â29), and, she claims, âSatanism of course has rituals and ceremonies involving bloodâ (124). Teen romances featuring mermaids and werewolves can lead to bestiality (125â130)! Brynne however tells Dan Murdoch, âTeen Exorcistsâ, that she is a fan of Dr. Who and Sherlock.
Larson, The Dark Side, 136: âEngland is a hotbed for witchcraft and satanic activity.â
Wallis, âTeen Exorcists.â
Murdoch, âTeen Exorcists.â In her book, Brynne also explains how the ancient Eygptians received the powers of black magic from Satan (Larson, The Dark Side, 39, 115, and 127, in reference to Exodus 7:11â12). The same claim is found in the writings of the Roman Catholic exorcist Gabriele Amorth, Esorcisti e psichiatri (Rome: Dehoniane, 1996), 112 and 120â121, and idem, An Exorcist tells his Story (San Francisco, CA: Ignatius Press, 1999), 41.
Larson, The Dark Side, 111.
Larson, The Dark Side, 151.
Murdoch, âTeen Exorcists.â
Larson, The Dark Side, 127.
Murdoch, âTeen Exorcists.â
Larson, The Dark Side, 139â141.
Cooper, âAre Teen Exorcists for Real?â
Larson, The Dark Side, 94.
âTeen Girl Exorcism Squadâ; cf. Larson, The Dark Side, 80.
âTeen Girl Exorcism Squad.â
Larson, The Dark Side, 30.
âTeen Girl Exorcism Squadâ; Murdoch, âTeen Exorcists.â
Larson, The Dark Side, 30.
Cooper, âAre Teen Exorcists for Real?â; Duboc, âTeenage Exorcists.â
Cooper, âAre Teen Exorcists for Real?â; Duboc, âTeenage Exorcists.â
Larson, The Dark Side, 21.
Larson, The Dark Side, 68.
Murdoch, âTeen Exorcists.â
Larson, The Dark Side, 45.
Larson, The Dark Side, 17.
Larson, The Dark Side, 47.
Cf. Bauer and Doole, âThe (Re)Invention of Biblical Exorcism,â 14 and 20.
Larson, The Dark Side, 53.
Larson, The Dark Side, 94 [emphasis added]. When VICE reporter Charlet Duboc interviews a Ukranian Orthodox priest (Duboc, âTeenage Exorcistsâ), he says: âRegarding this pseudo-phenomenon of these young girls, there have never been such saints in the Orthodox Church and, moreover, so young and moreover female, who could do such things.â
For a comprehensive discussion of the role of female virginity in ancient Christianity, see Julia Kelto Lillis, Virgin Territory: Configuring Female Virginity in Early Christianity, Christianity in Late Antiquity 13 (Oakland, CA: University of California Press, 2023).
For examples of Brynne Larsonâs moral conservatism within a US context, see especially Larson, The Dark Side, 96, 99, 142, and 144.
Larson, The Dark Side, 159.
Larson, The Dark Side, 159.
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