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âPhoenix from the Ashesâ: Religious Communities Arising from Globalization
in Journal of Religion in EuropeSearch for other papers by Hans G. Kippenberg in
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When in the 1960s religious congregations were suffering from diminishing membership, the sociology of religion turned away from the study of organized religion in order to study private religiosity, even though new social forms of religion were emerging. The article addresses first the impact of globalization on the place of religious communities in the fabric of national and transnational society. Labor migration severs the individual from his or her transmitted loyalties and places him or her amid the risks of the labor market. Parallel to this, the nation state conveys public tasks into private hands in the realms of education, health care, social welfare, and sometimes security. Both changes open up new opportunities for religious communities. Second, the paper addresses the subjective side of the shift, focusing on the Abrahamic religions. They claim the promise given to Abrahamâthat he and his descendants will be blessed and become a great nationâfor their communities. When the factual history contradicts that expectation, prophetic and apocalyptic visions of a bright future keep alive that faith. They summon the believers to fight for the well being of their community, to assist and support each other, and to claim public recognition for their community, since it is beneficial to the entire society. The article argues that this model of religious communality enabled believers in the past to appropriate official legal and social forms for their community. Max Weber in his Economy and Society also argued that religious communality remains a powerful social order in modern society. According to him its strength derives from the subjective religious expectations of social actors and the positive or negative impact their practices exercise on other social orders such as economy, family, state, and law.
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2)
âPeter L. Berger, The Sacred Canopy: Elements of a Sociological Theory of Religion (New York: Anchor Books, 1990), 134.
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5)
âRobert Wuthnow, Boundless Faith: The Global Outreach of American Churches (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009).
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6)
âSee David Martin, Tongues of Fire: The Explosion of Protestantism in Latin America (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990); David Martin, Pentecostalism: The World Their Parish (Oxford: Blackwell, 2002).
-
7)
âStephen Ellington, The Megachurch and the Mainline: Remaking Religious Tradition in the Twenty-First Century (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2007).
-
8)
âStefano Allievi, Conflicts over Mosques in Europe: Policy Trends (London: NEF, 2009), 22â26 presents the figures for European countries and counts 8,701 mosques serving migrants.
-
10)
âHeidi Campbell, Exploring Religious Community Online: We Are One in the Network (New York: Peter Lang, 2005).
-
13)
âMalcom D. Evans, Religious Liberty and International Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 172â226; Matthias Koenig, âInstitutional Change in the World Policy: International Human Rights and the Construction of Collective Identities,â International Sociology 23 (2008), 95â114.
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14)
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16)
âCf. Gordon Anthony, âPublic Law, Pluralism, and Religion in Europe: Accommodating the Challenge of Globalisation,â Revue Européenne de Droit Public 17 (2005), 47â73, here 47.
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21)
âGuy G. Stroumsa, âFrom Abrahamâs Religion to the Abrahamic Religions,â Historia Religionum: An International Journal 3 (2011), 11â22.
-
22)
âAaron W. Hughes, Abrahamic Religions: On the Uses and Abuses of History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012).
-
24)
âHans G. Kippenberg, Die vorderasiatischen Erlösungsreligionen in ihrem Zusammenhang mit der antiken Stadtherrschaft (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1991), 119â138.
-
26)
âTessa Rajak, âWas There a Roman Charter for the Jews?â Journal of Roman Studies 74 (1984), 107â123, and Rajak, âJewish Rights in the Greek Cities under Roman Rule: A New Approach,â in: William S. Green (ed.), Approaches to Ancient Judaism (Studies in Judaism and Its Greco-Roman Context), vol. 5 (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1985), 19â35; see also Karl Leo Noethlichs, Das Judentum und der römische Staat. Minderheitenpolitik im antiken Rom (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1996), 34â36 and Noethlichs., Die Juden im christlichen Imperium Romanum (4.â6. Jahrhundert) (Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 2001), 58â71.
-
29)
âL. Michael White, Building Godâs House in the Roman World: Architectural Adaptation among Pagans, Jews and Christians (The Social Origins of Christian Architecture), vol. 1 (Valley Forge, Penn.: Trinity Press, 1996); and White, Texts and Monuments for the Christian Domus Ecclesiae in Its Environment (The Social Origins of Christian Architecture), vol. 2 (Valley Forge, Penn.: Trinity Press, 1997).
-
31)
âRudra Nita, âGlobalization and the Decline of the Welfare State in Less-Developed Countries,â International Organization 56 (2002), 411â445; Michael Bonner, Mine Ener, & Amy Singer (eds.), Poverty and Charity in Middle Eastern Contexts (Albany: SUNY, 2003), part 3, The State as Benefactor.
-
33)
âJoseph Schacht, An Introduction to Islamic Law (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1964), 155â157; Doris Behrens-Abouseif, âThe Waqf: A Legal Personality?.â in: Astrid Meier, Johannes Pahlitzsch, & Lucian Reinfandt (eds.), Islamische Stiftungen zwischen juristischer Norm und sozialer Praxis (Berlin: Akademie, 2009), 55â60.
-
35)
âBrynar Lia, The Society of the Muslim Brothers in Egypt: The Rise of an Islamic Mass Movement 1928â1942 (Reading: Ithaca Press, 1998); Mariz Tadros, The Muslim Brotherhood in Contemporary Egypt: Democracy Redefined or Confined? (London: Routledge, 2012).
-
41)
âJames Davison Hunter, Culture Wars: The Struggle to Define America. Making Sense of the Battles over the Family, Art, Education, Law and Politics (New York: Basic Books, 1991). For a critical look at the empirical scope of the concept, see Morris P. Fiorina, Samuel J. Abrams, and Jeremy C. Pope, Culture War? The Myth of a Polarized America, 2nd ed. (New York & Toronto: Pearson Education & Longman, 2006).
-
42)
âGrace Davie, Religion in Britain since 1945: Believing Without Belonging (Oxford: Blackwell, 1994).
-
46)
âIbid., Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2000), 65â79; here, 67 and 69. Cf. Hans G. Kippenberg, âThe Social Capital of Religious Communities in the Age of Globalization,â in: Panayotis Pachis & Donald Wiebe (eds.), Chasing Down Religion: In the Sights of History and the Cognitive Sciences, Festschrift Luther Martin (Thessalonike: Barbounakis, 2010), 215â232.
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47)
âPutnam, âDemocracy in America at Centuryâs End,â 31.
-
48)
âJames S. Coleman, Foundations of Social Theory (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press & Harvard University Press, 1990), 321.
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49)
âAlexander-Kenneth Nagel, âCharitable Choice: The Religious Component of the US-Welfare Reform: Theoretical and Methodological Reflections on âFaith-Based-Organizationsâ as Social Service Agencies,â Numen 53 (2006), 78â111.
-
50)
âAmartya Sen, Development as Freedom (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 20.
-
60)
âJames Clifford, âDiasporas,â Cultural Anthropology 9 (1994), 302â338.
-
62)
âE.g. Peggy Levitt, God Needs No Passport: Immigrants and the Changing American Religious Landscape (New York & London: The New Press, 2007).
-
64)
âMichael Cook, Forbidding Wrong in Islam: An Introduction (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 3.
-
72)
âReuven Paz, âIslamic Legitimacy for the London Bombings,â PRISM 3/4, http://www.e-prism.org/images/PRISM_no_4_vol_3_-_Islamic_legitimacy.pdf (accessed February 1, 2013)
-
73)
âShmuel Bar, Warrant for Terror: Fatwas of Radical Islam and the Duty of Jihad (Lanham, Md.: Rowan and Littlefield, 2006).
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74)
âRüdiger Lohlker, Dschihadimus: Materialien (Vienna: Facultas, 2009); Mariella Ourghi, Muslimische Positionen zur Berechtigung von Gewalt. Einzelstimmen, Revisionen, Kontroversen (Würzburg: Ergon, 2010).
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78)
âJohannes J. G. Jansen, The Neglected Duty: The Creed of Sadatâs Assassins and Islamic Resurgence in the Middle East (New York: Macmillan, 1986), 200.
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79)
âMark Juergensmeyer, Global Rebellion: Religious Challenges to the Secular State, from Christian Militias to al Qaeda (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008).
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80)
âSalwa Ismail, Rethinking Islamist Politics: Culture, the State and Islamism (London: I. B. Tauris, 2003), 58â113.
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âPhoenix from the Ashesâ: Religious Communities Arising from Globalization
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When in the 1960s religious congregations were suffering from diminishing membership, the sociology of religion turned away from the study of organized religion in order to study private religiosity, even though new social forms of religion were emerging. The article addresses first the impact of globalization on the place of religious communities in the fabric of national and transnational society. Labor migration severs the individual from his or her transmitted loyalties and places him or her amid the risks of the labor market. Parallel to this, the nation state conveys public tasks into private hands in the realms of education, health care, social welfare, and sometimes security. Both changes open up new opportunities for religious communities. Second, the paper addresses the subjective side of the shift, focusing on the Abrahamic religions. They claim the promise given to Abrahamâthat he and his descendants will be blessed and become a great nationâfor their communities. When the factual history contradicts that expectation, prophetic and apocalyptic visions of a bright future keep alive that faith. They summon the believers to fight for the well being of their community, to assist and support each other, and to claim public recognition for their community, since it is beneficial to the entire society. The article argues that this model of religious communality enabled believers in the past to appropriate official legal and social forms for their community. Max Weber in his Economy and Society also argued that religious communality remains a powerful social order in modern society. According to him its strength derives from the subjective religious expectations of social actors and the positive or negative impact their practices exercise on other social orders such as economy, family, state, and law.
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