Abstract
Various ant species and their products serve as food sources across different regions of the world. Notable examples include Carebara spp. from Africa, Atta spp. and Liometopum sp. from Latin America, Formica rufa from Europe, and Oecophylla spp. from Asia. In addition to being consumed directly, ants are used as flavouring agents and incorporated into a variety of culinary recipes. Humans also harvest cereals and honey gathered by ants.
1 Introduction
Ants are eusocial insects belonging to the family Formicidae within the order Hymenoptera. They live in colonies with a queen and consist of different castes: workers and soldiers and drones (males). According to GBIF (2024) there are 15,376 species recognised worldwide. During specific periods winged queens and winged males (alates) have their nuptial flight. Various ant species are utilised for food, medicinal purposes or as aphrodisiacs. This editorial focuses primarily on their role as a food source and the edible products they provide, such as cereals and honey.
2 Edible ant species
For a comprehensive list of edible ant species from around the world, including references, see Paoletti et al. (2005). This editorial focuses on the most relevant species.
Carebara in Africa
Carebara vidua is an Afrotropical ant species native to eastern and southern Africa (Antwiki, 2024). In Kenya, alates emerge for their nuptial flight following the short rains (November) or long rains (April), rising from small, inconspicuous soil openings. After mating, females shed their wings, burrow into the soil, and construct chambers 10-15Â cm below the surface. Nests can grow up to 40Â Ã 40Â Ã 20Â cm and are often located near mound-building termites such as Macrotermes michaelseni (Lepage and Darlington, 1984). The workers of this âthief antâ prey on termites likely due to their small size or neutral odour (Wheeler, 1965). This behaviour, known as lestobiosis, involves living in the nests of other species to steal food. There is a significant size dimorphism between workers (approximately 2Â mm) and reproductives (about 2Â cm). Female alates weigh 3,400 to 4,600 times heavier than workers (Lepage and Darlington, 1984). During nuptial flights, female alates are caught and consumed, with their abdomen particularly prized. They are eaten raw, fried or roasted across East and southern Africa (Ayieko et al., 2012; van Huis, 2021). In the Lake Victoria region of Kenya, the Luo people consume both males and females, valuing them not only for their high protein content, but also for their medical properties (Ayieko et al., 2012).
Atta spp. in Latin America
Atta spp. are estimated to be responsible for the decomposition of 15-20% of all leaves in South America (DeFoliart, 2005; Wikipedia, 2024), contributing to soil fertility (Farji-Brener and Tadey, 2009).
In Mexico, three Atta spp. are consumed: A. cephalotes, A. mexicana and A. texana, a practice going back to pre-Hispanic times (Katz, 2016). The general name is âchicatanasâ but this applies to the reproductive phase and is derived from the name in naÌhuatl (Aztek) language and means âant bagâ (tzicatl = ant, and tanatli = palm bag), again referring to the large abdomen of the future queens (Landero-Torres et al., 2005). They are caught during their nuptial flights in May and June, when they emerge from their nest holes. They are emptied in a recipient with hot water. They are roasted but also used in sauces called âsalsattasâ. To conserve them they are often toasted and smoked. In rural areas, A. mexicana is a common food, for example according to Gallardo-LoÌpez et al. (2023), consumed by 75% of the population of a region in Veracruz, the main reason being the taste. The Tucano people of the northwestern Amazon (Colombia, Brazil) consume about 1.5 kg per person of A. cephalotes, A. laevigata, A. sexdens per year (Paoletti et al., 2000). Nutritional values of different forms of processing of A. mexicana (Paniagua-MartıÌnez et al., 2022; PinÌa-Dominguez et al., 2023) have been investigated. In Peru even a cereal bar from A. sexdens has been prepared (Lozada-Urbano et al., 2023).
In the Amazonas State of Venezuela, soldiers of A. cephalotes are used to prepare a spicy sauce âcataraâ, made with cassava and hot pepper (Paoletti et al., 2005). Similarly, the Tatuyo people of Colombia harvest soldiers of A. cephalotes, A. laevigata, A. sexdens, by inserting a stripped palm leaf rib into a nest entrance. The attached ants are then collected in a container (Dufour, 1987). In Brazilâs Mato Grosso State, the EnaweneÌ people mix crushed ant soldiers into cassava paste as part of their traditional cuisine (Katz, 2016). An advantage of using soldier ant is their availability year-round.
Atta laevigata, a species of leafcutter ant, ranges in habitat from Venezuela to Paraguay (Granados et al., 2013). In northern South America, it is commonly known as âhormiga culona,â meaning âbig-bottomed ant,â referring to the large abdomen of the future queens, which are the only individuals used as food. During nuptial flights (March-April and May-June in Colombia), future queens are captured using suction tubes (Granados et al., 2013). After collection, they are beheaded and their wings and legs removed before being salted, roasted or fried. The antsâ own oil is used during cooking, enabling preservation for over a year (Motte-Florac, 2016). Historically, the indigenous Guane people of the Santander Department, Colombia, even reared these ants as a food source (Katz, 2016). By the 18th century, A. laevigata was sold in local markets, and it continues to be available today in Colombiaâs capital, BogotaÌ, and through online vendors. Its nutritional composition has been studied in detail by Giron et al. (2017).
Liometopum sp. in Latin America
Liometopum apicalatum, a member of the subfamily Dolichoderinae, is commonly known as âescamoles,â a term originating from the NaÌhuatl word term âazcamolliâ (âazcatlâ meaning ant and âmolliâ meaning puree). Often referred to as âMexican caviar,â this delicacy consists of the immature stages of the reproductive ants, a traditional food consumed since Aztec times (Ramos-Elorduy and Morales, 1996). In Mexico, escamoles are sustainably harvested from February to May, with one to three collection cycles per season. Additionally, workers can be gathered year-round (Ramos-Elorduy and Morales, 1989), ensuring preservation and continuity of ant colonies.
Oecophylla spp. in Asia
The Asian weaver ant (Oecophylla smaragdina) is distributed across Asia, Australia, and the Western Pacific (Wetterer, 2017) and is highly valued for its pharmacological and nutritional properties (Alagappan et al., 2021). It ranks among the most popular edible insects in the Lao PDR and Thailand (Pattarayingsakul et al., 2017; Van Itterbeeck et al., 2014), as well as in India (Chakravorty et al., 2016; Megu et al., 2019; Mitra et al., 2020; Raza et al., 2021; Vidhu and Evans, 2015). Weaver ants build nests in trees by pulling leaves together. Their large larvae and pupae, which develop into winged reproductive females known as virgin queens, are particularly prized. In Lao PDR, virgin queens are typically collected from February to April by piercing tree nests with a long bamboo stick (4-6Â m) fitted with a basket near the tip. The contents of the nest, including all castes and developmental stages, fall into the basket and are either consumed or sold. The queen brood is often mistakenly referred to as âant eggs.â In India, certain tribes prepare a sour sauce by crushing worker ants (Vidhu and Evans, 2015) or make a spicy chutney by mixing them with other ingredients (Raza et al., 2021). Weaver ants are rich in protein and fatty acids (Adam Mariod, 2020; Doloi and Basumatari, 2024). Given their nutritional potential, farming O. smaragdina using artificial methods has been proposed (Offenberg, 2011).
Formica rufa in Europe
Many ants produce formic acid as a defence mechanism, a trait that gives the family Formicidae its name. Formica rufa (subfamily Formicinae) is characterised by a sharp acidity reminiscent of caramelised lemon rind, while Lansius fuliginosus (subfamily Formicinae) has a milder acidity with a distinct aroma of Kaffir lime (Evans et al., 2017, p. 84). In Sweden, F. rufa was historically used not only for medical purposes, but also as a flavouring agent for aquavit (PeÌrez-LloreÌns, 2024; Svanberg and Berggren, 2019). Live ants were placed in a bottle filled with liquor distilled from grain or potatoes and left to infuse for several weeks. The resulting schnapps was valued both as a medicinal remedy and a flavourful drink. A traditional recipe featuring ants, known as âant tears,â using F. rufa, is detailed in Evans et al. (2017, p. 264).
A traditional yoghurt-making technique from southeastern Europe (such as Bulgaria) involves using live ants (F. rufa) as a fermentation starter. The ants supply the necessary bacteria and acid to trigger the milkâs fermentation process (Sinotte et al., 2024). This works because ants produce formic acid as a defence mechanism, which can cause milk to coagulate. Adding just four live ants to a container of milk introduces enough lactic acid bacteria, enzymes, and acids to initiate the transformation into yoghurt.
While ants are occasionally featured on the menus of select Western restaurants, ants of the genus Formica are known to frequently harbour the metacercariae of the lancet liver fluke (Dicrocoelium dendriticum), a parasitic trematode with a complex life cycle involving snails and ants as intermediate hosts. Consequently, Jensen et al. (2017) advise against consuming Formica ants raw if they are collected from the wild. To ensure safety, ants should be frozen, boiled, or treated with ethanol prior to consumption.
3 Using ants for seasoning
At a recent meeting of the American Chemical Society (ACS, 2024) researchers presented findings on the distinct flavours of various ant species. Common black ants (Lasius niger) were noted for their acidic, vinegary aroma, attributed to their high formic acid content. In contrast, chicatana ants (Atta spp.) lack formic acid but exhibit a nutty, woody, and fatty scent due to the presence of aldehydes, while their roasted, nutty aroma comes from pyrazines. These ants are commonly consumed in parts of Mexico to enhance the texture and flavour of dishes and sauces. Female and worker chicatana ants are particularly rich in 2,5-dimethylpyrazine, a key trail-marking pheromone, responsible for their characteristic nutty, woody scent (Runwal, 2024). Weaver ants (Oecophylla spp.) were described as having a nutty, sweet, and caramel-like aroma due to various pyrazines and pyrroles. However, researchers also detected hay- and urine-like off-flavours, likely resulting from high concentrations of amines. Additionally, African hunter-gatherers such as the IGui and llGana of the Kalahari Desert use Camponotus spp. ants to season their food (Nonaka, 1996).
4 Recipes with ants
PeÌrez-LloreÌns (2024) highlights various culinary creations featuring ant-based ingredients from around the world. In Mexico, L. apicalatum appears in numerous dishes, including âElotesâ (baby corn) with powdered chicatana ants, coffee, and costenÌo chile mayonnaise, as well as âMonkfish aguachile with tomato, avocado, and crushed chicatana ants.â In the United States, âBistec con mole de chicatanaâ features grilled prime Black Angus ribeye served with a black bean tamal and chicatana ant mole.
From Brazil, a notable dish includes Atta spp.: âRaw Amazonian leaf-cutter ant on a pineapple cube.â In Europe, F. rufa is featured in âBeef Tartare with Ants,â consisting of lightly cured beef tartare (cured in kelp seaweed) paired with celeriac oil and wood ants. In Thailand, Oecophylla spp. are used in âGrilled Sea Bass with Ant Caviar,â served in beurre blanc sauce topped with pan-fried queen ants and corn salsa.
5 Ant products being consumed
In Mexico, two ants species of the subfamily Formicinae, Myrmecosistus and M. mexicanus, commonly known as honeypot ants, are harvested for their honey-filled abdomens (Katz, 2016; Ramos-Elorduy and Morales, 1989). Worker ants care for specialised repletes, whose swollen abdomens store large quantities of nutrient-rich fluid to sustain the colony during periods of scarcity. Indigenous communities harvest these ants, with approximately 1,000 ants producing one kilogram of honey. In some regions, the honey is allowed to ferment, producing an alcoholic beverage (Ramos-Elorduy and Morales, 1989). Similarly, in Australia, Camponotus inflatus, another Formicinae species, is also classified as a honeypot ant (Conway, 1991).
During drought and famine in the Sahel region, harvesting stored grains from ant nests is a common survival strategy. Grain-harvesting ants such as Meganopora sp. and Messor spp. (including M. aegyptiacus) build extensive underground nests used for storing seeds (Malaisse, 2005; van Huis, 1996). This traditional practice is also documented among indigenous Australians (Sweeney, 1947) cited by Tommaseo Ponzetta (2003).
6 Conclusions
Edible ants are primarily harvested from the wild, though some references suggest the potential for farming certain species. While reproductive ants are most consumed, workers and soldiers are also eaten in some cultures. Species with notably large, nutrient-rich abdomens, such as Atta spp. and Carebara spp., are particularly valued. Additionally, some ant species are used as seasoning due to their high formic acid content, which imparts a distinctive flavour. Beyond the ants themselves, humans can also harvest the products they collect, such as seeds and honey-like substances stored in specialized ants.
Corresponding author; e-mail:Â arnold.vanhuis@wur.nl
References
ACS, 2024. The many flavors of edible ants. PressPacs American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, USA. Available at: https://www.acs.org/pressroom/presspacs/2024/march/the-many-flavors-of-edible-ants.html
Alagappan, S., Chaliha, M., Sultanbawa, Y., Fuller, S., Hoffman, L.C., Netzel, G., Weber, N., Rychlik, M., Cozzolino, D., Smyth, H.E. and Olarte Mantilla, S.M., 2021. Nutritional analysis, volatile composition, antimicrobial and antioxidant properties of Australian green ants (Oecophylla smaragdina). Future Foods 3: 100007. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fufo.2020.100007
Antwiki, 2024. Carebara vidu. Available at: https://antwiki.org/wiki/Carebara_vidua
Ayieko, M.A., Kinyuru, N., Ndongâa, M.F. and Kenji, G.M., 2012. Nutritional value and consumption of black ants (Carebara vidua Smith) from the Lake Victoria Region in Kenya. Advance Journal of Food Science and Technology 4: 39-45. Available at: https://www.maxwellsci.com/print/ajfst/v4-39-45.pdf
Chakravorty, J., Ghosh, S., Megu, K., Jung, C. and Meyer-Rochow, V.B., 2016. Nutritional and anti-nutritional composition of Oecophylla smaragdina (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) and Odontotermes sp. (Isoptera: Termitidae): two preferred edible insects of Arunachal Pradesh, India. Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomology 19: 711-720. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aspen.2016.07.001
Conway, J.R., 1991. The biology and aboriginal use of the honeypot ant, âCamponotus inflatusâ Lubbock, in Northern Territory, Australia. Australian Entomologist Mafazine 18: 49-56. Available at: https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.5555/19921175368
DeFoliart, G.R., 2005. Overview of role of edible insects in preserving biodiversity. In: Paoletti, M.G. (ed.) Ecological implications of minilivestock: potential of insects, rodents, frogs, and snails. Science Publishers, Inc., Enfield, NH, USA, pp. 123-140.
Doloi, D. and Basumatari, D., 2024. Proximate analysis of Oecophylla smaragdina, an edible weaver ant consumed by certain tribes of Assam, India. Ttar Pradesh Journal of Zoology 45: 208-213. https://doi.org/10.56557/upjoz/2024/v45i33893
Dufour, D.L., 1987. Insects as food: a case study from the Northwest Amazon. American Anthropologist 89: 383-397. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1987.89.2.02a00070
Evans, J., Flore, R., Frøst, M.B. and Nordic Food Lab, 2017. On eating insects: essays, stories and recipes. Phaidon, London, UK.
Farji-Brener, A.G. and Tadey, M., 2009. Contributions of leaf-cutting ants to soil fertility: causes and consequences. In: Lucero, D.P. and Boggs, J.E. (eds.) Soil fertility. Nova Science Publishers, Inc., New York, NY, USA, pp. 81-91.
Gallardo-LoÌpez, F., RendoÌn-MartıÌnez, A., RamıÌrez-Sandoval, G., Ozuna, C., Paniagua-MartıÌnez, I. and RamıÌrez-MartıÌnez, A., 2023. Consumption of Atta mexicana (chicatanas) in two regions of Veracruz, Mexico â a multifactorial study of the consumption of chicatanas. Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 9: 525-539. https://doi.org/10.3920/JIFF2022.0054
GBIF, 2024. Free and open access to biodiversity data. Global Biodiversity Information Facility, Copenhagen, Denmark. Available at: https://www.gbif.org/
Giron, R.J.C., Hidalgo, G.G., Garcia, J.E.B., HernaÌndez, E.P. and Villa, P.M., 2017. Exploring the food and nutritional potential of three edibles Amazonian arthropods. EtnobioloÌgıÌa 15: 26-31.
Granados, C.C., Acevedo, C.D. and Guzman, L.E., 2013. Tostado y harina de la hormiga santandereana âAtta laevigataâ. BiotecnologıÌa en el Sector Agropecuario y Agroindustrial 11: 68-74.
Jensen, A.B., Malagocka, J., Eilenberg, J. and Fredensborg, B.L., 2017. Viability of Dicrocoelium dendriticum metacercariae in Formica polyctena ants after exposure to different treatments. Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 3: 15-20. https://doi.org/10.3920/jiff2016.0042
Katz, E., 2016. Les insectes comestibles en AmeÌrique latine: de nourritures dâIndiens a patrimoine alimentaire. In: Le Gall, P. and Motte-Florac, E. (eds.) Savoureux insectes: dâaliment traditionelles aÌ lâinnovation gastronomique. Presses universitaires de Rennes/Institut de Recherche pour le deÌveloppement, pp. 89-117.
Landero-Torres, I., Murguia-GonzaÌlez, J. and Ramos-Elorduy, J., 2005. Ethnographic study of âchicatanasâ ants consumption (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) at Huatusco, Veracruz, Mexico. Folia EntomoloÌgica Mexicana 44: 109-113.
Lepage, M.G. and Darlington, J.P.E.C., 1984. Observations on the ant Carebara vidua F. Smith preying on termites in Kenya. Journal of Natural History 18: 293-302.
Lozada-Urbano, M., BendezuÌ Ccanto, J., Condori Chura, J., Rivera-Lozada, O. and YanÌez, J.A., 2023. Development and acceptability of a cereal bar with Atta sexdens ant flour. F1000Research 12: 849. https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.135516.1
Malaisse, F., 2005. Human consumption of Lepidoptera, termites, Orthoptera, and ants in Africa. In: Paoletti, M.G. (ed.) Ecological implications of minilivestock. Science Publishers, Inc., Enfield, NH, USA, pp. 175-230.
Mariod, A.A., 2020. Nutrient composition and bioactive components of ants (Oecophylla smaragdina Fabricius). In: Mariod, A.A. (ed.) African edible insects as alternative source of food, oil, protein and bioactive components. Springer International Publishing, Cham, Switzerland, pp. 225-229. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-32952-5_15
Megu, K., Tukshipa, S.D., Yasung, P. and Chkaravorty, J., 2019. Protein composition of Oecophylla smaragdina (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) based on altitudinal variation from Arunachal Pradesh, India. Dera Natung Government College Research Journal 4: 33-40. https://doi.org/10.56405/dngcrj.2019.04.01.05
Mitra, A., Chanda, A. and Raut, S.K., 2020. On the use of red ant Oecophylla smaragdina by the indigenous people of Binpur, Jhargram, West Bengal. International Research Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences 5: 67-71.
Motte-Florac, E., 2016. Des insectes aphrodisiaques au menu, entre mets deÌlivats et remeÌdes. In: Le Gall, P. and Motte-Florac, E. (eds.) Savoureux insectes: dâaliment traditionelles aÌ lâinnovation gastronomique. Presses universitaires de Rennes/Institut de Recherche pour le deÌveloppement, pp. 148-196.
Nonaka, K., 1996. Ethnoentomology of the Central Kalahari San. African Study Monographs 22: 29-46.
Offenberg, J., 2011. Oecophylla smaragdina food conversion efficiency: prospects for ant farming. Journal of Applied Entomology 135: 575-581. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0418.2010.01588.x
Paniagua-MartıÌnez, I., Morales-Trejo, F., RendoÌn-MartıÌnez, A., Gallardo-LoÌpez, F. and RamıÌrez-MartıÌnez, A., 2022. Acceptance and physicochemical properties of raw and roasted ants (Atta mexicana). Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 8: 65-74. https://doi.org/10.3920/JIFF2020.0168
Paoletti, M.G., Buscardo, E. and Dufour, D.L., 2005. Edible invertebrates among Amazonian Indians: a critical review of disappearing knowledge. Environment, Development and Sustainability 2: 195-225.
Paoletti, M.G., Dufour, D.L., Cerda, H., Torres, F., Pizzoferrato, L. and Pimentel, D., 2000. The importance of leaf- and litter-feeding invertebrates as sources of animal protein for the Amazonian Amerindians. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences 267: 2247-2252. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2000.1275
Pattarayingsakul, W., Nilavongse, A., Reamtong, O., Chittavanich, P., Mungsantisuk, I., Mathong, Y., Prasitwuttisak, W. and Panbangred, W., 2017. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitory and antioxidant peptides from digestion of larvae and pupae of Asian weaver ant, Oecophylla smaragdina, Fabricius. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 97: 3133-3140. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.8155
PeÌrez-LloreÌns, J.L., 2024. Chapter 12 â Entomogastronomy, a step beyond just eating insects. In: GarcıÌa-Vaquero, M. and AÌlvarez GarcıÌa, C. (eds.) Insects as food and food ingredients. Academic Press, Cambridge, MA, USA, pp. 191-214. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-95594-2.00005-7
PinÌa-Dominguez, I.A., Ruiz-May, E., HernaÌndez-Rodriguez, D., Zepeda, R.C. and Melgar-Lalanne, G., 2024. Bioactivity of the edible part of Chicatana ant (Atta mexicana, Smith 1858) and its protein concentrate. Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 10: 689-697. https://doi.org/10.1163/23524588-20230171
Ramos-Elorduy, J. and Morales, J.M.P., 1989. Los insectos comestibles en el MeÌxico antiguo (estudio etnoentomoloÌgico). A.G.T. MeÌxico.
Ramos-Elorduy, J. and Morales, J.M.P., 1996. El consumo de insectos entre los Aztecas. In: Long, J. (ed.) Conquista et comida: consecuencias del Encuentro de Dos Mundos. Universidad Nacional Automomia de MeÌxico, pp. 89-101.
Raza, M., Tukshipa, S.D. and Chakravorty, J., 2021. Oecophylla smaragdina (Hymenoptera: Formacidae) and Odontotermes sp. (Isoptera: Termitidae) a potential source of antioxodant: the two most preferred edible insects of Arunachal Pradesh, India. Discover Food. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1057539/v1
Runwal, P., 2024. Color-changing cookies and appetizing ants: Sunflower-seed butter and chicatana ants bring unusual chemistry to cooking. Chemical and Engineering News 102. Available at: https://cen.acs.org/food/Color-changing-cookies-appetizing-ants/102/i38
Sinotte, V.M., Ramos Viana, V., Vasquez, D.P., Sirakova, S.M., Valeron, N.R., Cuesta Mate, A., Taylor Parkins, S.K., Giecko, J., Velasco, E.M., Zilber, D., Munk, R., Andersen, S.B., Dunn, R.R. and Jahn, L.J., 2024. Making yogurt with the ant holobiont uncovers bacteria, acids, and enzymes for food fermentation. BioRxiv. https://doi.org/10.1101/2024.09.16.613207
Svanberg, I. and Berggren, AÌ., 2019. Ant schnapps for health and pleasure: the use of Formica rufa L. (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) to flavour aquavit. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 15: 68. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-019-0347-7
Sweeney, G., 1947. Food supplies of a desert tribe. Oceania 17: 289-299. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1834-4461.1947.tb00154.x
Tommaseo Ponzetta, M., 2016. RoÌle alimentaire des insectes dans lâ eÌvolution humaine. In: Le Gall, P. and Motte-Florac, E. (eds.) Savoureux insectes: dâaliment traditionelles aÌ lâinnovation gastronomique. Presses universitaires de Rennes/Institut de Recherche pour le deÌveloppement, pp. 241-255.
Van Huis, A., 1996. The traditional use of arthropods in Sub Saharan Africa. In: Proceedings of the Section Experimental and Applied Entomology of the Netherlands. Entomological Society (N.E.V.), Amsterdam, the Netherlands, pp. 3-20.
Van Huis, A., 2021. Cultural aspects of ants, bees and wasps, and their products in sub-Saharan Africa. International Journal of Tropical Insect Science 41: 2223-2235. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42690-020-00410-6
Van Itterbeeck, J., Sivongxay, N., Praxaysombath, B. and van Huis, A., 2014. Indigenous knowledge of the edible weaver ant Oecophylla smaragdina Fabricius Hymenoptera: Formicidae from the Vientiane Plain, Lao PDR. Ethnobiology Letters 5: 4-12. https://doi.org/10.14237/ebl.5.2014.125
Vidhu, V.V. and Evans, D.A., 2015. Ethnoentomological values of Oecophylla smaragdina (Fabricius). Current Science 109: 572-579. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/24906112
Wetterer, J.K., 2017. Geographic distribution of the weaver ant Oecophylla smaragdina. Asian Myrmecology 9: 1-12. https://doi.org/10.20362/am.009004
Wheeler, W.M., 1965. Ants: their structure, development and behaviour. Columbia University Press, New York, NY, USA and London, UK.
Wikipedia, 2024. Atta (ant). Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atta_(ant)#Ecological_effects
